What Libyans Really Feel About the US Intervention in Their Country

President Obama congratulated Libya on achieving "independence" in the anniversary of the 2011 Civil War. This is a true act of imperial hubris lauding an act of aggressive war. Under Muammar Qaddafi, Libya had a functioning government and a stable society. The country has gradually become a failed state, but the narrative presents it as a success of NATO military action. Libya demonstrated that natural resources if used properly, can improve the standard of living. They were not reliant on the IMF or World Bank for development, but chose an alternative that was more effective. The president's comments are disingenuous and condescending. Not only that, but it shows a profound lack of empathy. Libyans face economic challenges, armed militias, and the growing problem of international terrorism. There is no chance of a unity government with ethnic hatreds escalating at high levels. The US and EU have induced the refugee crisis with the attack on Libya. Imposing a governance on a country that does not want it creates more conflict.      

Reasons Behind the Rise of International Terrorism

There has been a gradual increase in international terrorism. Prejudiced individuals claim it is because of Islam and state that the religion is by nature extremist. This bigoted and simplistic perspective  ignores the complex social, political, and economic realities. The Middle East does not have a monopoly on terrorism; many nations attack others on a daily basis. Aggressive war has become America's strategy for solving international disputes. This policy has caused damaging repercussions. The only option left for some is to take up arms in response to US hegemony. The alternatives are limited in terms of organizing. Arab nationalism was a major force, that faded after Nasser's death. It was completely killed with the fall of Qaddafi. The attacks will continue as long as the current foreign policies are in place. The problem is rooted in the Cold War. During this period the United States supported Islamist in the Middle East as a counter to Nasserism. Saudi Arabia was also a large contributor to a large Islamist faction through the development of the World Muslim League. The United States would then arm Islamist groups in Afghanistan with assistance from Saudi Arabia as well as Pakistan. Even after the with draw of Soviet forces, the US continued to support these armed groups. What also gave rise to international terrorism was internal discontent within Arab and North African countries. The Islamist rejected modernism and cultural influence from the West. They believed their way of life was being destroyed by decadent and unsavory elements. Another issue that arose was the discord with authoritarian regimes supported by the US and its European allies. What also exacerbated the situation was an unquestioned alliance with Israel. This continues to be a source of major contention in the Middle East. The economic dynamic drove many to join extremist groups. The financial reward seemed worth it in some countries, seeing as unemployment was high and growth was non-existent. US imperialism, continued support for Israel,  internal resistance to modernity, authoritarian regimes, and military strikes are reasons behind the spike international terrorism around the world.
       US imperialism has been masked in a fraudulent cause of protecting freedom and human rights across the globe. During the Cold War the excuse used for rapid expansion was to stop the spread of communism. The United States realized that the Middle East was of significant geopolitical importance. The Eisenhower administration developed a policy of favoring Saudi Arabia as force against Egypt. Gamal Nasser challenged western imperialism by having solidarity with anti-colonial movements and taking control of the Suez Canal. The Suez crisis may have been a military defeat for Egypt, but it was a political victory. Arab nationalism was a major movement in the Middle East and threatened US Cold War policy in the region. Direct invasion would be too precarious. Nasser was not a communist, so that excuse would lack cogency in international public opinion.The option that was used to harass Egypt was a combination of sabotage and arming of hostile countries. The element of sabotage involved arming religious fundamentalists. This experiment was done in Iran when the CIA and MI5 contributed to the overthrow of Mohamud Mossadeq. Prime Minister Mossadeq was going to nationalize the oil industry which would effect American and British access. The British did provide support to the Muslim Brotherhood. This was prior to the 1952 free officers coup that removed the monarchy of King Farouk. Support for the Muslim Brotherhood by the British was designed to halt the Arab nationalist movement. Even when the British supported monarchy collapsed, the Muslim Brotherhood remained active. Sunni Muslim extremist groups were being financed and armed by Saudi Arabia. The turning point came with the establishment of the World Muslim League. King Faisal established this not only to fight communism, but Nassarism and anti-colonial movements. This was the point in which radical political Islamism became an ally of the US .Religious fundamentalists reactionaries would be natural anti-communists, because they believed atheism was an evil.The US was not fighting communism, but imposing its will on developing nations. This meant becoming involved in the internal affairs of various nations around the world. When the US became intertwined with the internal affairs of the Middle East the effects were devastating.
        The major foreign policy error was the support for Israel. This has caused much rage in the Middle East. Israel's continued discrimination and murder of the Palestinians has made it a general pariah internationally. The United States continues to defend the country, even when it commits acts violence and human rights abuse. Radical political Islamists  use this fact as a recruitment tool. The Palestinians who have no other legal options to combat oppression may turn to Islamist groups. Islamic Jihad becomes attractive to some due to the fact Arab leaders no longer challenge Israel. Syria, Iraq, and Libya were the few states that continued resistance. The Gulf monarchies are western aligned and opted for peace. Egypt under Anwar Sadat recognized Israel in exchange for the return of the Sinai peninsula. Egypt had abandoned the pan-Arab vision, leaving a  political power void in the region. It was only a matter of time that the populace would turn to another political ideology. The loss of territories to Israel in the Six Day War in 1967, but the Middle East in a major state of disrepair.

Egypt lost the Sinai peninsula and Syria had the Golan Heights seized. The West Bank and Gaza Strip were occupied. It seemed as if Arab nationalism was defeated. The death of Nasser was the final blow. Islamism was gradually becoming the new political movement popular in the Middle East. Israel continues to be a symbol of colonialism and an entity that seeks to harm Arabs. While it cannot be denied that Zionists and Islamist basically want theocracy, their versions differ. One seeks the rule of Islam, while the other wants the rule of Judaism. Zionists already seem to be ahead in their theocratic project . The peculiar amalgamation of groups known as ISIS want to establish a caliphate . Iran is a theocracy, but has no need for expansion. it already has allies like Syria and Hezbollah which can contribute to its regional goals. Iran has been accused of Israel and the US of supporting terrorism, but this claim is questionable. The majority of  terrorist groups are Sunni Muslim extremist and would not accept Shia Muslim financing or support. The reality is that the US and Israel have armed a multitude of groups for the purpose of destabilization. Jundallah has been active in Iran and allegedly has assistance from the US and its allies in the region. This combination of destabilization and aggressive Israeli expansion increase support for terrorist organizations. The people that join terrorist  see it as an effective method to resist the West and oppression from Israel. 

       The resistance  to modernity is by no means a unique issue to the Middle East. Across the globe reactionaries are organizing themselves to return to a "better time." Relevant to the Middle East, there are groups that want to see Islam practiced in what they believe to be "its purest form." Islam is a religion that has a long history of intricate thought. This pure form that anti-modernists want to go back to never existed. The motivation becomes clear when examining the objectives. The main objective of the Islamist movement is political transformation, not theological or philosophical exploration. Their goals are to transform Middle Eastern society into what they believe should be model Islamic states. These are extreme conservative values which include the subordination of women, an extreme version of Shariah law, and intolerance of opposing theological perspectives. Modern societies are becoming more secular and pluralistic. Globalization has allowed certain ideas and values to spread faster than ever before. Conservative Islamists want to keep these ideas from spreading, because they are convinced it will damage society.Transformations are already happening. Saudi Arabia is allowing women to participate in government. Women were allowed to vote in  Kuwait in 2007 for the first time. The conservative elements realize that the restrictive legal barriers are being removed and will respond with violence. People with extremist view points will join terrorist organizations, because of the feeling something is being taken from them. Change is the wave of the future. There are individuals who are either resistant or hostile to change and react violently. Religious societies will struggle to survive in the modern world. The West is not free from this conflict either. Religion continues to divide countries like the United States were social conservatives and liberal progressives are polarized. The Middle East is going through its own culture war. It has now escalated to the point of armed conflict. 

         Another catalyst for the increase in international terrorism is the existence of authoritarian regimes. The citizens living in the Gulf monarchies either despise their leaders or consider them Western clients. The leaders who were not puppets or aligned with the West were either killed or deposed by military force. Bashar Al-Assad's Syria is targeted because of its independent foreign policy. Muammar Qaddafi was never compliant with the West and was attacked. These leaders maintained high popularity due to their populist and nationalist ideology that wanted to maintain national sovereignty at all costs. Saudi Arabia is more oppressive than the other "rogue states" in the region. There is no political party or opposition group that can challenge the Saudi monarchy. The only organized groups are radical political Islamist ones. Religion is a great organizing  force and it can unite people from various ethnic, social, and political backgrounds.Saudi Arabia was founded on the basis of an extreme religious movement  of Sunni Islam known as Wahabbism. It was promoted to keep the kingdom together and control the more extremist elements of society. The Saudi monarchy then wanted to spread this religious movement around the world. Afghanistan and Pakistan became perfect places to do so. During the 1980s King Fahd established madrassas in both countries in order to spread the Wahabbist version of Islam. These were the ideological foundations of  terrorist organizations. Ideas are major motivators for actions and behaviors. Sayyid Qutb initially articulated early radical political Islamist ideas in Egypt in the 1950s and 1960s. Before Qutb, there was Hassan Al-Bana who in many ways was the harbinger of the radical political Islamist movement. He would go on to establish the Muslim Brotherhood.  

While different movements were emerging in numerous countries and independent of one another it was Saudi Arabia that wanted to unify it under its leadership. That is why it used its vast wealth to fund extremist Wahabbi madrassas internationally. The Soviet-Afghan War was the perfect opportunity for this, but had an unintended consequence. Like the United States, Saudi Arabia and other Gulf nations experienced blowback. The fighters that were known as the Arab Afghans came back to their home countries with the intent to overthrow both secular and monarchical governments. Saudi Arabia currently is at a cross roads attempting to fight the same extremists that it has armed. It still continues to arm groups active in the Syrian Civil War. The portion that it lost control of now is its biggest challenge internally and externally. Bahrain could face a similar problem if it does not allow reform. Young people frustrated by the level of oppression could be pushed into the arms of terrorists groups, because there is no political alternative. The emergent terrorist groups state their opposition to monarchy, secular regimes, and Western aligned governments. While citizens of various countries dislike their government this message becomes a voice of hope. People are drawn to terrorist groups due to inability to have representation in government. This is further exacerbated by economic decline in certain countries. Employment is low for youth, brain drain occurs, and there is limited opportunity for advancement. The real reason for the Arab Spring was not genuine revolutionary fervor, but economic challenges. Tunisia being the birth place of these uprisings demonstrated a government incapable of serving its citizens. Zine El Abindine Ben Ali chose to favor IMF reforms at the expense of the population. The result was the increase in youth unemployment and smaller businesses struggling to compete with international markets. Hosni Mubarack  followed similar policies in Egypt, which only created more support for the Muslim Brotherhood. Across North Africa and the Middle East Islamist parties were coming to power and were becoming like their former oppressors. Former President Morsi was deposed in Egypt due to the fact reforms were not implemented fast enough. He underestimated the political power of the army. Now terrorism has increased in the Sinai peninsula to resist the Al-Sisisi presidency. Authoritarian regimes now use the excuse they are fighting terrorism to continue oppressive policies. King Salman uses this excuse to pursue war in Yemen and continue to back Syrian rebels. The real irony is that the terrorists and authoritarians need each other to continue their agendas.  

        US military intervention has caused the increase of international terrorism to astronomical levels .  After the September 11th Attacks, the US embarked on a world conquering mission known as the War on Terror. This flawed concept wanted to declare war on a military tactic. Iraq, Libya, and now Syria are subject to military interventions. These strikes only make people want to join terrorist groups as a means of resistance. This becomes a powerful tool of recruitment, because everywhere the US invaded nothing positive occurred. Before 2001, the US was involved in Afghanistan for decades. It was the Jimmy Carter administration that began instigating uprisings in Afghanistan. Zbigniew Brzezinski, President Carter's  National Security Advisor  formulated this policy with intent of creating a Vietnam scenario for the Soviet Union. Once again, the US armed religious fundamentalists to destabilize a Middle Eastern government. The Nur Muhammad Taraki presidency in Afghanistan was weak. Taraki would fall from power being killed in the process. Hafizullah Amin would not hold on to the presidency long. Babrak Karmal would come to power in 1979, but needed Soviet assistance to stabilize his government. The People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan would not have held on to power without Soviet help. Around 1979, the Soviet Union sent forces into the country to keep the government intact. More aid came including weapons to the growing mujahideen forces. Afghanistan was falling into a state of civil war. The Ronald Reagan administration continued the policy of arming extremists to a far greater extent. Muhammad Zia-ul Haq the military dictator of Pakistan contributed to the development of the Taliban in the war against the Soviets. The ISI was critical in their growth and still continue to support sections of the group. All these armed groups would later break away to form Al-qaeda in 1988. Osama Bin Laden, Abdullah Azzam, and Ayman al-Zawahiri  were its founders. After the Soviet withdraw, many of the fighters returned to their home countries with the desire to overthrow governments by violent means. Algeria, Libya, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Pakistan, and Tunisia were experiencing challenges with terrorism. This would not have been possible without US involvement in the Soviet-Afghan War. This parallels the current situation with the rise of ISIS. The invasion of Iraq and the subsequent removal of Saddam Hussein allowed for a power void to form. Iraqis tired with occupation, corrupt government, and Sunni Muslims frustrated with discrimination joined the group, because it appeared to be a vehicle for  change. The reality is that it is a monstrous creation of US military strikes. The consequences have been horrific, with a growing number of refugees fleeing to Europe. There is now a situation in which people born in Europe are going to Iraq and Syria to join ISIS. If Iraq and Libya were never invaded ISIS would not even exist. If the Baathist government of Syria falls it will on make them more powerful. 

       International terrorism differs in the respect that perpetrators view everything from a global rather than a local perspective. If one country invades another Muslim country, they will go there to fight. They attempt to use the language of anti-colonial freedom struggle, but only talk about Muslim nations that suffer oppression. There are many countries that face hostility from the West that are not Muslim and they do not seem willing to fight for them. It is important to understand that one ethnic group or religion does not have a monopoly on terrorism. The US for half a century has terrorized countries that were no threat to it. Vietnam was subject to worst forms of US terrorism through bombing. More Arabs and Muslims have died than the people who perished in the September 11th attacks. That is the real tragedy. Islamophobia and anti-Arab racism has reach astronomical heights in Europe and the US. These racist convictions are influencing foreign policy and public opinion. It makes it easier for the public to accept aggressive war against Middle Eastern nations. It also enables Israel to continue to violate basic human rights and international law. As long as unpopular Western supported regimes remain in place, support for Israel continues, and imperialism remains a credible foreign policy terrorism will spread. Another problem that must be addressed is the question of religion in modern society. This is not just a problem of Islam, but religion in general. If religion wants to survive it must learn to adapt to modern society. Many are gradually thinking that it is no longer compatible. This is a question Muslims must confront by  themselves. The West must learn that the era of total domination is over. People will not longer accept subjugation by military force. If these issues can be solved international terrorism can be reduced, if not defeated.                      

                 

         

Kwame Nkrumah on Revolution

Referendum vote likely to extend President Kagame's rule

Paul Kagame President of Rwanda is seeking to extend his rule through a referendum. There are other proposed changes to the constitution as well. He has ruled the country since 1994 and in the tradition of other African leaders does not want to relinquish power. The revision could allow him to run for another 18 years. The voter turn out was high. President Kagame claims that he does not want to run for a third term, but the outcome seems predetermined. Extending presidential terms has not been received well in Burundi or Burkina Faso. Blaise Campore fell from power due to mass protests and President Nkurunziza still faces challenges from public opposition. There are fears that Burundi could revert back to a state of civil war. If  this happens it could possibly effect Rwanda. The only certainty now is that Paul Kagame will continue to rule with an iron first.  

The Compact Disc (CD)

The compact disc is a piece of technology designed to store data. This has been a primary method for storage for users of computers. The optical technology records data and utilizes lasers for this task. This format has become very popular which paved the way for the creation of DVDs, blue ray discs, video, and audio compact disc. James T. Russel was a physicist who developed one of the first compact discs. Sony and Phillips, two major electronics corporations made improvements to this technology and began selling it to the public. Around 1978 the first modern compact disc was produced, but it would not be marketed until 1982. Making a compact disc  requires  optically flat glass. A resist substances is added to that glass. Initially, the glass is on a base known as the master disc. This master disc will be placed on a turntable and then the digital signal is sent to a laser.  This allows the laser to function on a binary signal. The laser can be either turned on or off. The laser when activated will burn away a part of the resist material. When the disc turns, the recording head will migrate across the disc. The result will be a spiral shaped track burned onto the resist surface.

The recording will be completed and the next stage begins. What is known as the glass master is put into an enchant bath. The glass will remain and the resist will remain present.  What will be on the spiral track are a number of diminutive pits. They differ in length, but the depth is the same for each. Playing a recorded CD requires a laser beam. The beam scans up to five kilometers of playing track. During this process it converts pits and lands on the CD into binary codes. A photodiode then transforms this into coded electrical impulses within the CD. This is the basic outline of CD production and development.

       The CD like any other technology has certain parts. The main component is plastic. It has thin layers and in total a CD is only 1.2 mm. At the top of the CD is the label. Following that layer is an acrylic sheet and aluminium sheet. The final part of the CD is the polycarbonate plastic which has been injection molded. 

These layers contribute to the spirals  of the disc. The spiral track  maintains data. It starts at the center and continues outward on the disc. The bumps that are what construct the track. They are approximately 0.5 microns wide, 0.83 microns long, and 125 nanometers  high. The bumps on the CD can appear as pits on the aluminum side of the disc.If one was to pull the track off the CD, it would stretch for five kilometers. This is the basic structure, but when a CD is put into a drive it requires more processes. 

    The CD player has the task of extracting information from the disc. The bumps will be read by the drive to give information to the user. The drive motor spins the disc at a rate of 500 rmp. The speed depends on the type of track being read. The lens system must focus in on the bumps and the laser will be guided to them. The responsibility of the tracking system will assist the laser to the spiral track. The laser will move at micron resolutions. When laser focus occurs, the beam will hit the polycarbonate layer, reflect off the aluminum layer, and hits an opto-electronic device. It will detect changes in the light  Reflections behave differently on the aluminum layer.  The opto-electronic sensor monitors the changes in reflective properties. Changes in these properties help the CD read the bits. 

The data track requires the laser beam to be centered on it. The tracking system moves the laser outward. As the laser moves out from the center. The spindle monitor has to slow the speed of the CD. This makes the bumps on the CD travel past the laser beam at a rate that is constant. The data can then be let off the CD at the same rate as well. If this does not occur, play back and encoding errors can be on the disc.

      The CD has remained a preferred storage format. Even with the rise of external storage hard drives, they continue to cell millions of copies. It has become critical for archiving various video and audio materials. There can be problems in terns of preservation. Manufactures have stated that CD-ROMs can last at least twenty years. According to the United States National Archives and Records Administration the life span can be at least five years. Both these lifespans are just estimates, not precise measures. If the CD is protected from oxidation of the aluminum substratum, the lifespan and remain high.Proper storage and maintenance can resolve many issues of data corruption. One problem that is unforeseen is if all computer technology was destroyed. There would be no way to read the information retained on the disc. It would be like trying to translate ancient Meroitic script. A mass collapse of civilization would result in the loss of the knowledge preserved on CDs. Although digital downloads have reduced CD sales, it continues to be a popularly used format. 

References 

Krzewinski, Mary. The Handy Science Answer Book. New York: Visible Ink Press,1997. 

   Brain, Marshall.  "How CDs Work"  01 April 2000.  HowStuffWorks.com. <http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/cd.htm>  14 December 2015.  

  

Jean-Paul Sartre - In Our Time BBC Radio 4

Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980) was a philosopher and one of the major figures of existentialism. Not only was he a philosopher, but an activist. He was also a writer who produced novels. Sartre covered topics such as human knowledge, the question of existence, and the question of freedom. Born in Paris to a middle class family, Sartre lost his father at an early age. At an early age he was introduced to literature and gained a love a books. Simone de Beauvoir had a major impact on his life. They were lovers and collaborators to the philosophical condition. His most famous work was Being and Nothingness: An Essay On Phenomenological Ontology. This essay discussed the nature of freedom. This takes an element of consciousness. The idea "we are condemned to be free" challenges the determinism of our environment. Sartre was convinced that writing was a great form of resistance to oppression. Although writing can be used for reactionary purposes, there can be others who challenge them. Sartre rejected capitalism, colonialism, and imperialism.Jean-Paul Sartre supported anti-colonial liberation struggles and favored the Algerian movement for independence. Sartre attempted to combine both Marxism and existentialism into one ideology. He was supportive of the U.S.S.R, but he had some disagreements with certain ideas. Sartre's Marxism puts less emphasis on technocratic economy theory, but on its early philosophical roots. When developing complex ideas it is inevitable that contradictions can be avoided. To summarize Sartre's philosophy in a simplistic terms "we are what we do."       

Bashar Al-Assad, Syria, and the Escalating War in the Middle East

Bashar Al-Assad has been the president of Syria since the year 2000. After his father died, he inherited the presidency. He now faces one of the biggest challenges of his rule with the civil war and military intervention from the US, France, and possibly soon NATO. Russia has now intervened on his behalf to stop ISIS advancement. As much as the West wants Assad's removal, this would cause further destabilization. The various ethnic, religious, and cultural groups would attempt to destroy one another. An Islamist take over would be inevitable, seeing as they are the most organized political force. This parallels the US invasion of Iraq in which a leader is demonized and the public is convinced war is necessary. Removal of the Baathist regime in Iraq was a disaster. This could be expanded enormously if replicated in Syria. The West believes that the collapsing situation is entirely the fault of  President Assad. The US has sought to remove the Baathist regime for decades. The disorder caused by the Arab Spring provided an opportunity to do so. The US- EU block has no intention of negotiated settlement, but expanding the war. Doing so would place a client regime in  Syria and eliminate a regional challenger to Israel. At first these protests that emerged were peaceful , but they were eclipsed by full scale rebellion. Eventually, a simplistic narrative emerged. Assad was a villainous butcher murdering his own people and the rebels were fighting for a just cause. None of this represents the nature of the deterioration of the state. The country is going through a balkanization process similar to Yugoslavia. It attracted external powers and resulted in devastating consequences that will last for decades.
        To fully comprehend the crisis, one must know about president Bashar Al-Assad. He is a member of the Alawite Shia Muslim community, which is the minority that rules Syria. Bashar was originally not going to be the successor to Hafez Al-Assad. Basil  Assad was heir apparent, but he died in a car crash in 1994. Bashar was studying medicine with the intent to be an ophthalmologist.  Bashar was then groomed for the presidency. Bashar Al-Assad  went to  the military academy at Homs, attained the rank of colonel, and then worked as an advisor  to the government. President Assad was actually a reformer. During the early stages of his presidency, political prisoners were released, some media restrictions were lifted, and some criticism of the political system was tolerated .

The reforms were being implemented at a sluggish pace. The also were being hindered by the army, the Baath Party, and the Alawite minority. The conservative elements of Syrian society reacted to change they hated or feared, Assad was being a political realist, understanding reforms had to happen to keep the fragile country unified. He did not have the support for the reforms in the political establishment. These elements could not completely eliminate them, but delay their development.Simultaneously, the population was growing restless. Bashar Al-Assad once said that "democracy was a tool for a better life"This could not be rushed due to ethnic and religious hatreds.There were some accomplishments of his presidency despite opposition to the reforms. Syria by 2001 had cellphones, satellite television, and was looking to expand a business sector into information technology. Assad continued to keep the economy state controlled, but it was believed that it would transition to a free market. Assad continues to vociferously oppose Israel. It was the same policy of his father that has continued. The reason is obvious, due to Israel's past conflicts with Syria and the occupation of the Golan Heights. There was a shift in policy in regards to Lebanon. Syria began gradually withdrawing troops. Full with draw happened in 2005, when Syria was accused of involvement in the assassination of  former prime minister Rafik Hariri. Bashar Al-Assad's strategy was to maintain a close alliance with Hezbollah, Hamas, and an alleged relationship with Islamic Jihad. It is a way to challenge Israel indirectly. The Syrian army is not as powerful as Israel's so Assad continues to ally his country with Iran. This acts a balance to Israeli power. Syria's foreign policy is pragmatic using different alliances and groups to achieve its objectives. 

Assad visits Moscow in the 2000s  

Russia during the Cold War was a major ally of Syria. The collapse of the Soviet Union was a negative development for Syria in terms of access to economic aid. Bashar Al-Assad revived the Syria- Russia alliance. He understood it was imperative during the early 2000s. The Bush administration had made regime change an official policy. Syria was a target and declared part of the "axis of evil."  Relations between the US and Syria have never been normal, but at this point the rhetoric became more bellicose. Syria would have to rely on Russia to block the US from a possible invasion. Assad then looked to other countries to gain diplomatic support. One leader known to challenge US global dominance was former Venezuelan president Hugo Chavez. Bashar Al-Assad reached out to Venezuela on a number of political and international issues. The reason for this was to rebuild Syria's socialist values by showing solidarity with like minded governments and the global south. This included making diplomatic  overtures to  various Latin American nations.

Hugo Chavez and Bashar Al-Assad 

This would allow him to increase his popularity and alter international public opinion. Attempting to place Syria in a non-aligned stance would give it more options. The only real commitment it has is to Iran. Syria has received generous assistance from the Islamic Republic. Even though the government is secular, it still holds the alliance with Iran because they are of the Shia Muslim sect. This factors into regional politics that are divided by Sunni lead governments and Shia led governments .Bashar Al-Assad's foreign policy moves vexed the US. Being a pragmatist he attempted ease tensions in 2006 by saying "I am not Saddam Hussein I'm willing to negotiate." This was during the Hezbollah war with Israel, which Syria supported. This explains why Bashar Al-Assad still has a portion of support. His anti-Israel stance makes him popular among certain sections of the Syrian population. Relations with Turkey were deteriorating before the civil war. Water rights were are major source of contention. When Turkey opened its borders during the early stages of the civil war it was to undermine Syria, not save refugees.

Assad and Qaddafi

Another policy that the Bashar Al-Assad presidency advocated was relations with Libya. Most Arab states either ignored or isolated Libya. The Gulf monarchies held much contempt for the North African nation. Syria, being marginalized itself felt that diplomatic relations with Libya would be in its best interest. Syria and Libya had attempted Pan-Arab mergers in the past, but negotiations collapsed. When NATO commenced bombing in accordance to UN Resolution 1973, Syria objected.It was becoming apparent that Syria was the next country for a military strike.Protests were increasing in Syria with demands for an end to the state of emergency, restoration of civil rights, and general political reforms. These were objectives that Assad wanted, but were stopped by the army and the Baath Party elite. Now, he could push these reforms through citing the public's demand for them. The protesters  demands were not to depose the Bashar Al-Assad, but to  see the long awaited reforms happen. The state of emergency laws were lifted and Kurds were allowed to vote.The reforms came too late and the balkanization process already began. Islamist attacks occurred, ethnic cleansing directed at Kurds was sparked, and the West started arming a number of groups. The Baathist government made the situation worse by doing crackdowns of protests. Homs and Damascus were areas of intense civil disorder. The military response that Bashar Al-Assad advocated only resulted in civilian deaths and the rise of  terrorist organizations. Government backed Shabeeha (militia) were fighting numerous anti-regime forces.The US, UK, France, and most the EU began calling for Assad removal. The crisis they failed to understand was more intricate than Assad versus the people. Around the fall of 2011, Syria was suspended from the Arab League. The following year the country had reached full scale civil war. Assad now faces one of the biggest challenges to his presidency. His survival seems uncertain, but if he falls it could lead to more chaos.
     Syria was a creation of the mandate system. It was agreed that France would administer Syria after World War I. To make it easier to control areas were divided based on ethnic and  religious tension. The Kurds had to remain separated among each other between Turkey, Syria, Iraq, and Iran. If unified they could have formed a powerful state. The Shia and Sunni Muslims were put in the same state and it was only a matter of time before conflict would be ignited. The demographics and geography  of play a role in the current conflict. The majority of the population is Sunni Arab with a government run by an Alawite Shia Muslim Arab minority. There are Kurds present in the north of the country. Druze Arabs and Christians are prevalent in the southern regions. Iraq under Saddam Hussein was the opposite having a Sunni minority led government. Syria and Iraq had poor relations despite both having Baath Party branches. This tension was both ideological, national, and religious. Syria's relations with Iraq improved when Saddam Hussein was deposed. This gave Syria an opportunity to capture support of the Shia majority in Iraq.

The Shia majority in Iraq exacted vengeance upon the Sunni minority. Militias and what were essentially death squads emerged.Sunnis decided to take up arms in Iraq and this would be the harbinger to ISIS. Armed groups who found themselves unable to overthrow Assad, relocated in Iraq  and established bases of operations. They continue to attack Syria while other armed groups compete for power. The Al-Nusra Front is an organization  that is Islamist, while the Free Syria Army consists of defectors. Hezbollah provides assistance to Assad and were helpful in major military victories. Iran who does not want to see an ISIS victory and a loss of Syria would be devastating.These armed groups are organizing based on ethnic and religious hatreds. It has been documented that ISIS continues to engage in ethic cleansing of the Kurds. The Yazidi were subject to similar atrocities in Iraq.  Bashar Al-Assad's fall would only escalate racial and religious confrontation.
      This crisis has now attracted the intervention of European powers. The UK has now began bombing targets. Germany is still deciding witch path to take. Russia has said that the best method to defeating ISIS is to support Assad. His army has been fighting both armed opposition and terrorist organizations. After the Paris attacks, France used the tragedy to advance an aggressive foreign policy.President Francois Hollande's foreign policy has become interventionist expanding missions to Syria, Mali, and the African Central Republic.France wants influence over its former colonies and continues to use military force to do so. This revived imperial conquest has been justified as a solution to the refugee crisis. The argument is that if Assad is removed and ISIS is dismantled by airstrikes the problem will end. This would exacerbate an already precarious situation.The increase of bombing causes more civilians to flee to Europe. Forming a no-fly zone will not be effective, because it is only partitioning the country by plane. The people who cannot flee are held hostage by ISIS in the territories they control. The only way to remove ISIS would be by ground invasion. This would not ensure success; it will only provide more motivation for resistance. It seems that their are two versions of imperialism competing for regional control. There is the US-EU block supporting armed groups or as it is phrased "moderate opposition" against Assad. Simultaneously, the United States has sent more military advisors to Iraq to fight ISIS. Special forces are becoming more engaged in Syria and Iraq, which parallels America's involvement in Vietnam. It began with military advisors coming to a country supporting an unpopular government, despised by the majority of people. Russia, which has a significant investment in Syria wants the Assad government intact. It has been alleged that Russia is only bombing areas in which moderate opposition occupy. What the West refers to as moderate opposition is not moderate at all. They are groups that formed internally or externally and have been funded by the US, UK, and the Gulf monarchies. Turkey has even been accused by Russia of buy oil and financially supporting ISIS. It is no longer a secret that Saudi Arabia, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates have armed Sunni groups with the intent of overthrowing the Baathist government.Oman could possibly be the only Gulf monarchy that Syria has left as a friend. King Salman's aim is to wipe out the a competitor and undermine a much weakened Arab nationalist regime. Seeing as the Gulf monarchies fall into the Western orbit, this works in the favor of the Western powers. Four years this conflict has lasted and it could be the catalyst for an even larger conflict beyond the Middle East.
         There are number of pivotal considerations that should be examined. The effects of  the collapse of the Bashar Al-Assad presidency would reverberate through out the region. This would leave a power void in which extremism will take over. It should be assumed that Kurdish independence is on the horizon. The peshmerga has been doing much of the fighting against ISIS. It is incorrect to assume that the Kurds of Turkey, Syria, Iraq, and Iran would tolerate the status quo. They have been oppressed by Syrian, Iraqi, Turkish, and Iranian governments. Their demands will have to be met, before it becomes violent. If Bashar Al-Assad is to survive, he will become a regionally popular political figure. He will try to present this as a Syrian victory over invaders. Assad's government could possibly become more repressive after the war is over. Rebuilding after the damage will take an enormous amount of time. It is inevitable that there will be economic and environmental devastation, no matter who wins. The refugees will come in even larger numbers. Seeing as infrastructure has been destroyed, the country may not be livable for the majority of the population. European powers have to right to bomb Syria or Iraq. It was the invasion of Iraq that created a center for terrorism and now it is to the point of no return. The West will only induce more disorder. The only solution is to allow Assad to fight ISIS, while the pershmerga provides assistance. Iran has to be part of the strategy of decimating the terrorist organization.The Arab world must solve its own problems rather than looking to the West. It seems that a diplomatic solution would be more preferred than military force. It has to be understood that Bashar Al-Assad may remain president and for the time being, is providing a level of stability.      

References 

"Bashar Al-Assad." Bio.com. A&E Networks Television, 8 Dec. 2014. Web. 03 Dec. 2015. <http://www.biography.com/people/bashar-al-assad-20878575>.

Dorsey, James. "Are President Assad’s Reforms Too Little Too Late?" Al Arabiya News. N.p., 17 Apr. 2011. Web. 3 Dec. 2015. <https://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2011/04/17/145753.html>.

        

        

     

  

     

      

Nelson Mandela on Intolerance

American Indian Activist Russell Means Powerful Speech, 1989

Russell Means was an activist and co-founder of the American Indian Movement. He fought for the rights and dignity of the indigenous people of the US.  Here Russell Means testifies before a Senate Committee in 1989, explaining the corruption in the Bureau of Indian Affairs. Historically, the Native American has been subject to genocide, racism, and discrimination. The worst element of this was that culture was eliminated in favor of a Western value system. Native American reservations like the Pine Ridge Reservation, are areas of high poverty. American Indians struggle to maintain their language and rich culture. Unemployment and limited opportunities plague young people. Native Americans have been victims of environmental racism in which waste materials of been disposed of on their land. The American Indian faces an issue of dual citizenship. Being a member of a tribal nation and also being a US citizen.The only way for the American Indian to advance is to be a full member of American society. While the reservation system allows autonomy, its true purpose was to segregate and contain the Native American population.     

Psychology

Psychology can best be described as a science that examines behavior and mental processes. The word has its origins in ancient Greek. The word psyche means mind in that language. This science does have an element of controversy. Some theories are difficult to test with the scientific method. However, psychology to be truly scientific it must observe internal mental process. Neuroscience and neuroanatomy  has been helpful in this regard.  Thought, emotion, movement, and attributes of personality are considered part of  a mental process. Modern psychology puts emphasis on verifiable evidence and experimentation. Psychology has a negative past of either promoting eugenic or pseudoscientific ideas. These range from determining intelligence to claims of racial superiority. Pseudopsychology uses the language of the academic discipline, but does not utilize the scientific method. Outrageous claims made by astrologers and fortune tellers fall under pseudopsychology. There belief is that the mind is a gateway to the paranormal. It is one of many subjects like intelligent design that has no basis in fact. Psychologists fall into three major categories. Experimental psychologists are know for being involved in research with the goal of discovering new knowledge. Teachers of psychology are educators sharing their knowledge with students at the secondary and  tertiary school level. Applied psychologists are employed in both the private and public sector. They work to solve issues in schools, clinics, factories, social services, and various agencies. Psychology should not be confused with psychiatry. That field examines mental disorders from a medical perspective. They diagnose and believe mental illness can be cured. This seems questionable, because there is still much to learn about the elements and aspects of mental illness. Psychology like any other academic field has major factions. There are six perspectives that exist in psychology. The six perspectives include biological, cognitive, behavioral, whole-person (humanistic), developmental, and sociocultural. 

        The biological perspective can be traced back to the ideas of Rene Descartes. The 17th century philosopher stated that the spiritual mind was a separate entity.  To him there was a distinction between the physical and mental aspects of an individual. It was previously thought that mind and body were of one unit. Descartes reasoning led him to the conclusion that consciousness was not the product of  supernatural force. This realization allowed for a revolution in the study of biology, which would give birth to psychology. The biological perspective sees the mind as a product of the brain and its numerous functions. 

The rise of neurology, advances in medicine, and brain imagining techniques  the knowledge of the human brain has become more expansive. A sub-branch developed known as evolutionary psychology. Some have issues with this branch due to claims that appear to reference a eugenic past. Yet, this branch should not be discredited due to some unsubstantiated theories. Human beings had evolved for millions of years and this should be examined when approaching the  dynamics of the mind. 

    The cognitive perspective focuses on the aspects of  human thought. William Wundt was the first to use methods of science to uncover the mysteries of the mind. Wundt had an interest in chemistry and believed that psychology could use methods from that discipline. Wundt at the University of Leipzig began conducting experiments in 1879. What he was attempting to discover was the elements of consciousness. This gave birth to experimental psychology. Along with his students he was exploring attributes such as perception, sensation, memory, attention, emotion, thinking, language, and learning. Edward Bradford Titchener who was a student of Wundt developed structuralism. Structuralism sought to discover the components and units that constitute the mind. Although structuralist ideas were criticized, their methods are still in use. Other methods and concepts  arose from psychologists in the 20th century. William James challenged structuralism with functionalism. This idea believed mental processes can be deciphered by adaptive purpose and their specific function. 

William James thought that studying emotion was imperative. Emotions could explain the relations between the body and various behaviors. To James understanding how the mind adapts to different environments should be emphasized. Functionalist became the first in a way to use applied psychology. While structuralism and functionalism disagreed on many theories, they had a consensus in regards to introspection. This concept describes one's ability to understand their conscious mental experiences. 

William James 

The problem with the early cognitive perspective was that it was too subjective in some cases. Introspective methods were not entirely testable. Technological advancement aided the cognitive perspective. The rise of information technology such as computers gave people a greater understanding of cognition. Computers like the human mind, process information. The idea of the brain being like an organic information processing machine influenced psychology immensely. The modern cognitive perspective borrows from linguistics, medicine, and computer science. From cognitive psychology evolved cognitive neuroscience. Now with the knowledge of biology the mind and the true nature of behavior is being uncovered.  

        The third perspective is known as behavioral. This perspective challenged the idea of introspection that was favored by structuralists and functionalists. The behavioral perspective is not concerned with emotions or mental abstractions, but observable actions. John B. Watson an early behaviorist thought the only way for psychology to be credible was to examine responses and stimuli . The notion is that the environment has an influence on behavior and response. The argument of  behaviorism was that there is no evidence or method to prove the mind exists. This idea of the mind is an abstraction with no basis in anatomy or biomedical science.  

John  B. Waston

Watson argued that observation was the best method to understanding human function. B.F Skinner would also be a leading figure in the behaviorist movement. Psychology is not an inner experience, but an external one. Skinner put emphasis on the laws that govern behavior through stimuli and responses. This goes beyond responses and stimuli, but the consequences of behaviors. B.F Skinner developed operant conditioning which demonstrates the role of consequences on behaviors. People will behave differently according to possible consequences. Children for example will behave differently if there is possible reward involved. If the a child does engages in some misbehavior, a punishment will follow. Therefore a child that is disciplined by parents will stop or modify behavior to avoid punishment.  

B.F Skinner 

The possible consequences of a behavior are the most important aspect to a behaviorist. The behaviorists did not put emphasis on the unconscious. They doubted it existed. To other psychologist it was something tangible.

        The psychodynamic perspective has a desire to uncover the elements of the unconscious mind. Sigmund Freud was the proponent of this school of thought.Sigmund Freud was not actually trained as a psychologist, but had a background in medicine. His ideas would lead to the development of psychotherapy. Freud believed the route of mental illness was rooted in the unconscious mind. Our past experiences are molded by our unconscious. Freud was convinced the mind had three sections. They were the id, the ego, and the superego. The id was the representation of desires. The superego controlled behaviors and regulated inhibition. These elements constituted the human psyche. Freud developed psychoanalysis, which used a technique known as free association. This was designed to have individuals speak and reveal clues to get to the heart of their unconscious.  

Sigmund Freud 

 There are problems with this theory. The first is that the elements of the psyche cannot be observed as physical entities. It is difficult to demonstrate in a laboratory that psychoanalysis can survive the scientific method. Freud also claimed that sex was a major motivator behind human behavior. While there is some truth to that, it is not the only factor. Freud's theories have been challenged over the years, but still are used by psychiatrists. The psychodynamic perspective focused on the unconscious , but ignored the varied nature of individuals. 

         The humanistic perspective sought to understand people as individuals and how they strive for different goals. People are constantly trying to reach their potential. This process is known as self-actualization. The leading figures in this humanistic concept were Abraham Maslow  and Carl Rogers . This perspective focused on the development human ability, potential, and its gradual growth through out a person's life. Human self-concept and awareness shape emotions, thoughts, and how an individual functions. Maslow and Rogers thought that psychology got too mechanical and examining human beings requires more of a sociological approach. The basis of human nature and free will cannot be explained by psychodynamic or  behavioral theories. 

Abraham Maslow

Again, there are problems when it cannot be experimentally verified. Maslow's hierarchy of needs has not been proven to be fact. It starts with physiological needs such as food or shelter. The second need is safety. This is followed by love and the need to belong. When these needs are met, then a person develops a sense of self-esteem. The final stage is full self actualization. The model has been criticized as being too simplistic and not accounting for a wide range of human experience. There could be a child who grew up poor, but rose to prominence ( a scientist, artist, writer, or leader)  and reached self actualization. It seems as if this model is deterministic in viewpoint. It is not an entirely radical notion that most people want love and to be loved. Carl Rogers who was a therapist developed what is known as client-centered techniques.  

Carl Rogers 

This involved the therapist approaching a person with emotional warmth, respect, and developing an understanding of their issues. Talking about personal problems and having an empathetic exchange was the basis of client-centered therapy. Both Rogers and Maslow  did not have a huge body of  scientific research to enforce their theories. They did leave numerous writings that did influence practices in counseling and psychotherapy. Another branch of psychology that falls under the humanistic perspective is trait and temperament. Trait and temperament psychology states that personality and behavior are rooted in particular characteristics. Introversion and extraversion  are two examples of traits that influence personality. Introverts are more to themselves, possibly bashful, and less likely to try new experiences. The extravert is more gregarious and not afraid to meet new people. While the humanistic approach can be descriptive, the lack  experimental evidence hinders its credibility.  

       Psychologists realized that people do change over time. From birth to death an individual will not remain the same in mental state. The developmental perspective sought to answer why and how human beings change psychologically over an entire life span. The debate revolves around nature versus nurture. Developmental psychology does not perceive it as one or the other, but a combination of both. The idea is that people develop in a predictable manner. Being born, growing, and  aging  are predictable variables. Along with heredity and environment this can explain how a person develops psychologically. This is a cross section between biology and social interaction. Children were studied more than adults, due to the fact their development is rapid. They learn to walk, master speech, grow, and  transition to adult through puberty. The changes continue into adulthood with menopause and andropause. Hormones and physiological changes to effect the mental state of a person overtime. Developmental psychologists are taking an interest in changes over an entire life time, rather than just childhood. As psychology progressed, there still were areas that required further investigation. 

          Psychology throughout most of its history was dominated by white males. This lead to racist theories, eugenics, and pseudoscience being presented as credible academia. Realizing that the work of non-white psychologists was either ignored or dismissed the sociocultural perspective was developed to challenge white domination in the field. Psychology was developed mostly in Europe and North America. Robert Gurthie's monograph Even the Rat Was White: A Historical View of Psychology exposed many of the baseless theories regarding racial superiority. The psychologists of the past had little interest in the cultures of African, Asian, or South American peoples. A positive development is that the number of non-white psychologists are increasing and using the sociocultural methods. Culture does influence behavior and psychology did not give this much attention. While environment and heredity are factors culture is an essential one.  A notable concept that emerged from the sociocultural perspective was the power of the situation. Cultural forces are so powerful that they do influence behavior and mental state. The right of passage is cross cultural, but varies depending on location. Once a child reaches puberty, they are given a task to complete as a representation of their transition into adulthood. This practice prepares a child to take up new responsibilities that come with adulthood.        

  

Robert Gurthie 

Culture influences our belief systems and how individuals act with others. The sociocultural perspective goes beyond just ethnicity. It examines age, socioeconomic status, gender, sexual orientation, and religious affiliation. Psychology is a relatively young science and this is just the surface.  

      Psychology now has more influence than ever. Its techniques can be seen in advertising, education, medicine, sports, and entertainment. There are psychologists in various fields. The applied specialties include industrial and organizational psychologists, sports psychologists, engineering psychologists, school psychologists, rehabilitation psychologists, and clinical psychologists. Psychology for all the recent influence still struggles to legitimize itself as a science.Unlike physics, chemistry, biology, astronomy, and  mathematics  psychology does not have the experimental verification. The future is with neuroscience if psychology wants to be made part of the scientific family. Understanding the physiology of the human brain will legitimize psychology as a genuine science. Theoretical physics has a similar issue in regards to particles. This is solved by mathematical verification and particle accelerators. Multiple disciplines are required, when exact methods of experimentation are not available. There are many questions that still remain, but consciousness and the brain are not so simple.   

References 

Zimbardo, Phillip and McCann, Vivian.  Psychology Core Concepts. New York: Pearson,2009.

Thomas-Cotingham,Alison.  Psychology Made Simple. New York: The Phillip Lief Group, Inc, 

       2004. 

    

Paris Attacks: William Engdahl Explains the Past, Present and Future of the War in Syria

The roots of the recent attacks in Paris are the results of an imperialistic foreign policy. France by initiating airstrikes resulted in blow back from ISIS. The US and UK have a long history of financing armed groups and terrorist organizations for the purpose of destabilizing nations they want to control .The Muslim Brotherhood got assistance from the CIA to destabilize Gamal Nasser's Egypt. The US also armed the Mujahideen in Afghanistan to thwart Soviet attempts at restoring the communist regime in the 1980s. During the 1990s terrorist groups were utilized in Bosnia and Chechnya. The US now is arming various groups to depose Bashar Al-Assad. ISIS was fostered and developed by the US, Qatar, and Saudi Arabia as a way to stop the development of a Shia Muslim power block of nations. Iran, Iraq, and Syria were on the verge of constructing a major gas pipeline that would be serious competition for the energy market in the region. The desire to remove Assad has nothing to do with human rights or ISIS, but energy resources. The recent attacks in Paris will be used to justify France attempting to re-colonize Syria and Lebanon. What will happen in France itself is the reduction of civil liberties and basic rights in the name of national security.    

What to Expect From China and Taiwan Meeting

Since 1949, Chinese and Taiwanese leaders have not maintained positive diplomatic relations. When the Kuomintang was defeated and Chiang Kai-Shek established the Republic of Taiwan relations with the mainland have been hostile. A long civil war that lasted from 1927 to 1949 left much political national division. Mao Zedong declared the People's Republic of China in October 1949 under the rule of the Chinese Communist Party. The confrontation between the Kuomintang and the CCP  predated the Cold War, but China and Taiwan would be drawn into Cold War tension. The US would support Taiwan with military aid and engage in acts of sabotage against Mao's China. Chiang Kai-Shek would become a Cold War ally and was determined to retake the mainland. With the end of the Chinese Civil War, there still was not peace. Conflicts emerged in a series of clashes over various islands from 1954 to 1955 and again in 1958. These were known as the Taiwan Straits incidents. As the 20th century drew to a close, China abandoned Maoism, embraced a market system, and emerged as a world power. Even though the Cold War has ended, there still is enmity between China and Taiwan. It has been 66 years of tension and conflict. It will take some time to foster cordial diplomatic relations. This will not be immediate. What China wants to do is draw Taiwan out of the influence of the United States. Taiwan sees that China is a rising power, with an economy it wants access to. Improving relations with Taiwan is pivotal, because the US has been directing its Asia pivot policy toward containing China. This meeting between Xi Jingping and  Ma Ying-Jeou  can serve as a symbol. Although Asian nations differ in their politics, they can collaborate on resolving common challenges. The major challenge is the growing US presence in Asia Pacific, which is creating division among nations in the region.
       Xi Jingping and Ma Ying-Jeou met in Singapore. There are some obstacles to the talks. Taiwan sees its self as an independent nation-state, while the mainland wants to reunite with it. The People's Republic of China views it as a seceding province. There has been some improvement in relations, even collaboration in trade, tourism, and economic pacts. Since 2008 there has been a gradual effort to bring the two feuding nations to reconcile. The first high level talks were held around 1993, yet there are still issues. One sensitive issue was the South China Sea disputes. This was deliberately avoided during the talks.The reason for China's immediate urge to meet with Taiwan may be due to US provocations in the South China Sea. The US claims it is trying to defend the right of free navigation, but the geopolitical situation challenges this statement. The Philippines, Japan, South Korea, and Vietnam could be forming an anti-China US lead coalition. China most likely fears that Taiwan would be added to this emerging coalition. Cognizant of the previous straits incidents in the 20th century, discussing the South China Sea would complicate matters. The relationship between Taiwan and the US is a strange one. While the US does recognize the People's Republic of China, it still remains committed to defending Taiwan. However, Taiwan does not want to be a client state of the US or a tool in  its foreign policy. Ma Ying-Jeou  as president realized this meeting had to happen despite much protest from the Taiwanese public. The choice for Taiwan is not an allegiance between China or the US, but a path way to establish an independent foreign policy.

Xi Jingping is attempting to stop a developing image of China as a regional hegemon. Seeing as China's political and economic power is growing observers assume that it will be more threatening. China has become more assertive, but it was induced by growing US presence in Asia. Another issue facing the talks is how to get both the Chinese and Taiwanese public to accept  these changes in relations. For years there has been propaganda distributed to the public and reversing this will be an arduous task. Taiwan's image of China was the belligerent Communist state seeking expansion through out Asia. China presented Taiwan as a puppet state of US foreign policy. These perceptions are extreme exaggerations, but persist. This meeting between the two presidents prove that there has been significant progress, yet expectations should not be too high. Discussion is only the first step in the process of normalization between nations.    

     There should be realistic expectations from observers of this diplomatic contact. There will not be immediate cordial attitudes. This will have to be fostered over a long period of time. The past cannot be forgotten and the tension is still present. After World War II there was an attempt to form a unity government, to stop the Chinese Civil War from continuing.Losing Japan as a common enemy meant that there was no reason to hold peace talks between the Chinese Communist Party and the Kuomintang. Publicly, it appeared as if Mao and  Kai-Shek were willing to negotiate. This was not to happen and hostilities continued. Seeing this parallel in history, there should be caution in regards to Presidents Xi Jingping and Ma  Ying-Jeou. Beijing and Taipei may be collaborators in one circumstance and enemies in another. 

Many with the more optimistic perspective refer to this diplomatic exchange as historic. It is premature to say that a new chapter has been initiated. The question regarding Taiwan as rebellious province or nation-state will not be answered anytime soon. Taiwan has seen itself as a separate country to be given a Hong Kong like status. China may just have to accept that it will remain free from its control and no longer one of its territories. There may be more progress made in economic affairs. This could be a major driving force behind for improving relations. It would be wise to develop a bilateral relationship between Taiwan and China. China has one of the world's biggest economies. Although there is slow down in growth, this is an opportunity for Taiwan. While there may be more cooperation in terms of economics, political matters will be more difficult. Taiwan's political atmosphere can be divided into parties that favor reunification and others that desire to maintain independent status. China is a one-party state, but there are factions who do not want to see the nation open normal relations. The Democratic Progressive Party of Taiwan was the first to break the KMT monopoly of the presidency in the year 2000. The KMT captured the presidency from Chen Snui-Bian in 2008. Ma Ying- Jeou  has been president since and has pursued a principle of mutual nondenial. This is not official foreign policy, but describes the relations between China and Taiwan. Both countries do not recognize each other, therefore complicating arguments in regards to national sovereignty in the Taiwan straits.This special state to state relationship can be viewed as actions in one state, rather than two separate entities. Reunification seems impossible, considering Taiwan now sees itself as an independent nation. There was even a referendum proposed to officially refer to the Republic of China as Taiwan in 2007. There will be more economic collaboration, but political alliances seem ou of reach. 

     It is premature to call this a historic or radical change in direction, but it can serve as a symbol. This meeting can be used as a symbol of a revived Pan-Asianism. Here two Asian nations considered mortal enemies are attempting to make peace. Asian problems can only be solved by Asian countries, not by external powers. If this attempt at normalization is successful, it may bring hope to the tension between North and South Korea. The Korean situation has proven far worse. It could escalate given the current geopolitical conditions. China and Taiwan's contact in Singapore could be used as a model to solve issues before they reach the point of warfare. Xi Jingping and Ma Ying Jeou should use this to advance a large cause of stability and unity through out Asia. If Taiwan can meet with a one-party communist state, then South Korea should at least take it into consideration. This would be more difficult seeing as North Korea still functions on a Soviet model of  communism. China made market reforms, which has caused social problems, but it did open the country up to others economically and diplomatically. China could influence North Korea and Taiwan could do the same with South Korea. Establish a framework that reduces hostilities and fear is the only option if Asia is to advance in the 21st century. The risk may be a large South East Asian regional war, which would attract intervention by Western powers. The possibility of being recolonized is a reality. This time it will not be from the UK, France, Germany, or the Netherlands, but the United States. 

       One major motivation for this meeting was the changing geopolitics induced by the Asia Pivot policy. China and Asian nations are being threatened by US military build-up in the Asia Pacific region. The US is sending more troops to Australia and has a military presence in the Philippines, South Korea, including Japan. These nations were close Cold War allies and essential to the Vietnam War effort. Taiwan never has hosted US military bases. During the Cold War it did receive support, but never would allow itself to become a client of the United States.  Now, Vietnam seems positioned to join this new anti-China coalition. The danger here is the development of rival alliance systems. This could tear the region apart. Division among Asian nations serves US foreign policy objectives. The United States wants to remain the sole superpower in  the world and China could potentially rival it in the future.Encircling China gives the US a head start, if  war is started. Recent incidents that occurred in the South China Sea are a delicate balancing act. The US claims China has violated the freedom of navigation. China has been in border and sea disputes before, but rarely did the US become vociferous. The interest was developed by the possibility of  oil reserves deep in the sea. The US wants control of most of the globe's oil reserves and has developed a foreign policy around that objective. Therefore, the US has gradually attempted to change and present China as a threat to global security. Considering US military actions in Iraq, Yemen, Afghanistan, Libya, and Syria this claim is spurious. Asian nations who align with the US see their national sovereignty diminish, while their governments become clients to US regional demands. Asian countries should resist falling into a network of rival alliance systems. Taiwan has appeared to see the potential danger and is trying a different approach. This may lead to treating China less like an enemy and  the easing of tensions. 

      The result of the Taiwan and China meeting could be improved economic collaboration. Political obstacles are too numerous that normalization of relations will not happen soon. Questions regarding Taiwan's status still are a hindrance to talks. The argument by some is that it is a seceding province and others assert it is an independent state. The problem becomes complicated further by the South China Sea. Just like the Taiwan straits incidents, China has caused anger among its neighbors with the construction of artificial islands. Border disputes and access to the seas are common problems for formally colonized countries. The only solution is through diplomacy and more importantly a revival of   Pan-Asian solidarity. As a region, Asia shares similar challenges. This requires cooperation not competition  among countries. There is a common belief  held in US foreign policy circles that America should act as a balance to China in Asia. This modern day white man's burden should be discarded, because Asia as a continent spent half a century fighting for national liberation. The US should not be trusted due to its past actions in Korea, Vietnam, and the atomic attack on Japan. The end of the Cold War brought major geographic and political shifts. China and Taiwan are now are attempting to move past that troubling legacy. It will take much diligence and effort, but it is necessary given the volatile atmosphere of international affairs.