Idriss Deby the New African Union Chairman

Idriss Deby the President of Chad has been elected AU chairman. He is taking over from Robert Mugabe. This should not be interpreted as a step in the right direction. The Chadian leader has ruled since 1990 and has been notorious for his cooperation with the French. The purpose of the African Union is to secure the continent from external forces bent on colonization and to promote cross regional development. President Deby's credentials as a Pan-Africanist are questionable. Robert Mugabe who has developed much respect for his efforts against Apartheid and British influence in Southern Africa made him an excellent choice. This development has put into question the true motives of the organization itself. If the African Union wants to be a force for positive change, it must elect chairmen who have the dedicated goal of challenging neocolonialism and military strikes on the continent. The War on Terror is being used as an excuse for the West to comeback to Africa with military force. Deby has a past that should be scrutinized. Idriss Deby has been involved closely with France, fought wars of proxy in Sudan, and has maintained the authoritarian structure of his predecessors.
      The Chadian Civil War had created complications internally and externally. Chad was faced with French intervention and a conflict with Libya over the Aouzou Strip. Libya and Chad never were able to mediate a solution to border disputes. The United States also got involved in the Chadian Civil War supporting the Habre Hissene regime. This was part of a general anti-Qaddafi policy that the Ronald Reagan administration adopted in the 1980's. Idriss Deby during this time was commander in chief of the armed forces. He had been part of the military since the 1970's. Deby went to France to receive  military training in 1976. He was able to earn his pilots license Idriss Deby returned to a country still in conflict around 1978. He was ambitious and wanted a role in government. Deby decided to support Habre, because at the time it seemed as if he was going to take power. This came to fruition in 1982. Idriss Deby's military successes allowed him to build support in both the army and the government. Idriss Deby once more went to France to participate in a senior officers training program. This was at the Ecole Superieure de Guerre. The nature of the civil war and the conflict with Libya began to change. Togo was able to mediate a solution, which the Organization for African Unity failed to do on multiple attempts. Libya and Chad issues a joint statement in 1988 that both were willing to negotiate over the Aouzou Strip, rather than continue the war. This put Deby in a vulnerable position politically. He had distinguished himself through the war and an end of hostilities could mean the loss of political power. Hissene Habre and Idriss Deby's political alliance was beginning to crumble. Idriss Deby was accused of plotting a coup in 1989. It is unclear if this was a false accusation by Habre  or an unsuccessful attempt by Deby to forcibly take power.
       Idriss Deby fled to Sudan. There in the Darfur region he began amassing an army to invade Chad . Deby returned to the country with a force of 2000 troops and drove Habre from N'Djamena. Idriss Deby was now firmly in control. November of 1990 brought Chad into a new era of authoritarian rule . France a country that had supported Habre, abandoned him. As long as a regime was strong enough to maintain stability and uphold French neocolonial designs, it was acceptable. Before there was an attempt to balance ethnic disputes, but Habre toward the end of his rule favored his Daza ethnic group. Deby being a Zaghawa was vexed at this act of discrimination. It is ambiguous what was Deby's reasoning in visiting Libya. It has been alleged that he was getting training and support for his assault on the Habre regime. Deby was either informing Qaddafi of Habre's troop movements or hoping to gain the Libyan leader's support. The main objective could have been to show that a Deby presidency  was no threat to Libya.

Deby giving a speech in 1990 

 Doing this would ensure Deby could attack without a Libyan reaction. The United States would not react because a powerful Chad could be used against Libya. France would continue to help Deby more so than the United States. Idriss Deby was firmly in power, but still had to deal with rebel groups. The new president promised a new era of reform. Deby began to revert to the previous autocratic power structure. The system was beginning to favor his own ethnic group and a network of patronage. Idriss Deby declared in 1991 that he would allow opposition parties to register. This move was more so a method of preventing a mass uprising that could descend into civil war. The southern region of  Chad caused the most trouble for the neophyte regime. Protests occurred, which were the result of austerity measures, increasing tax rates, layoffs, and decrease in salaries. The salary reduction vexed both civil servants and members of the military. International human rights organizations started to take notice of Chad's general deterioration. Coup attempts and rebellions were increasing rapidly. A new constitution was drafted in 1994 that permitted multiparty democracy to end dissent. Deby released political prisoners to demonstrate that reform was taking place. The reality was that he was presenting the illusion of change. Even though a referendum allowed for the approval of the constitution in 1996, Idriss Deby won the presidential election. His party would then dominate the legislative elections in 1997. International observers claimed that the elections were free and fair, but this can be disputed.

He has never lost an election. This was a case of double standards that the West imposes on other countries.It is quick to attack countries that are not compliant with their policies, but praise authoritarian leaders that pursue Western objectives. Idriss Deby was reelected in 2001 again with accusations of electoral fraud. There was another referendum which abolished term limits to the presidency. This made Idriss Deby more powerful than ever. The opposition parties boycotted both the 2006 and 2011 elections. The staged elections may have placated some, but rebel resistance continued. Life for the average Chadian did not improve. Funds which could have been used for development were going to the military to fight rebel groups. Food assistance, infrastructure development, and education are being ignored. Decades of warfare has damaged Chadian society.Chad in the 1990s was in a turbulent state, but regionally and internationally the political situation was becoming more complicated. 

     The 9/11 attacks dramatically changed Chad's position. The United States became interested in Chad once more. The highest level of aid from the US was in the 1980s. Around 1995 the aid dropped significantly,due to the fact it looked like Chad was developing a more cordial relationship with Libya. Libya accepted the International Court of Justice ruling in 1994 and relinquished claims in the Aouzou Strip. Idriss Deby and Muammar  Qaddafi spent the 1990s repairing relations between their two countries. Libyan aid could replace the disappearing American aid. The two countries needed each other. Libya was under sanctions and Chad needed stable allies to counter rebel groups both in and outside the country. Relations with Sudan were becoming intense. The conflict in Darfur spread across the border, straining diplomatic relations. Chad has since the early 2000s been an essential part of the US counter terrorism operations in Africa. This was a new era for the Deby presidency, because now he could do violent acts with little international condemnation. The unique aspect of the regime is that it can adopt and survive in numerous unfavorable circumstances. Between 2003 and 2010 one of these cases emerged with a conflict with Sudan. Omar al-Bashir and Idriss Deby accused each other of fueling insurgencies. Both nations have had a long history of civil war and ethnic conflict. This matter became more awkward considering both countries had diplomatic relations with Libya. The Sudanese Civil War drew Chad into another long term military engagement. Thae nature of it was different this time. Idriss Deby came close to being deposed on several occasions. France  intervened in 2005 and 2008 to stop the advance of rebel factions and keep Deby in power. France sees Deby as a regional asset than must not be lost. Under Nicolas Sarkozy and Francois Hollande  Chad was becoming a place that could be used in French military operations across the continent. Chad has gradually attempted to move away from sole dependence on France. Yet, Idriss Deby has no problem using them when necessary.  Chad enjoyed military equipment from Libya and political support. It is believed that since 1989 Libya supported Idriss Deby's Patriotic Salvation Movement. France and the United Sates still labelled Libya as a pariah, but Chad was able to avoid being sanctioned by those powers. After Libya renounced its nuclear programs, the West lifted sanctions. The year 2004 gave Deby the chance to avoid choosing sides if war was to breakout between the US, France, and Libya. This challenge was later brought up with the 2011 NATO intervention in Libya. Chad was in reality had no desire for the fall of Qaddafi. This would mean a loss of a source of aid Chad could call upon. Previously, Chad had secured restored relations with Sudan over issues surrounding Darfur and the Rally For Democratic Forces.Qaddafi acted as a mediator in restoring relations between Chad and Sudan. The two nations opened their embassies up again in 2006. Omar al-Bashir even attended Deby's presidential inauguration.

This was a success for stability and the fact it was an agreement engineered by African leaders caused alarm in the West. African solutions to African problems are not in the interests of the US and EU block. Either there is the goal to remove leaders who show independence or create new puppets. The United States has been working on the project of creating a puppet to enforce the War on Terror in the Sahel. The Trans-Saharan Counterterrorism Initiative has Chad as a major partner in America's war against terrorism. America's flawed foreign policy put it in a state of indefinite warfare and legitimized US support for human rights abusing regimes. Idriss Deby could now use the excuse that he was "fighting terrorism" when confronting anyone who disagreed with him politically. The 9/11 attacks were helpful to authoritarian presidents in Africa aligned with the US. Sudan has to maintain positive relations with Chad, due to the fact Darfur is still in revolt and there are tensions in South Sudan. The new nation could descend into civil war causing Sudan to react. Omar al-Bashir needs allies and Idriss Deby can provide some level of protection.The TSCI ensures that Deby will remain secure from a possible strike from the West or the US.  

       The NATO intervention in Libya, China's diplomatic overtures, and a more aggressive US has altered Idriss Deby's calculus. The assassination of Qaddafi shocked and disgusted many African leaders. Idriss Deby has in a sense, been put in a precarious situation. Terrorist groups and militias are waging war, while there are two rival governments. Libya has become a failed state similar to Somalia. An unstable Libya is a threat to Chad. If this disorder functions anything like the Sudan conflict in 2003, rebel groups will enter Chad. Deby was probably in private, vexed that NATO caused the destabilization in Libya. Publicly, another message was conveyed. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton at the time claimed that Chad was still supporting Qaddafi. While Chad denied this it was alleged that Chadians came into Libya to fight on Qaddafi's behalf. The Western media referred to them "as African mercenaries." These were not mercenaries, because they were sent on the behalf of Idriss Deby. Idriss Deby has stated that Chad would never be compliant with the ICC. He stated during the NATO war  that he would not execute the ICC order to arrest Qaddafi or any other Libyan official. Idriss Deby's reasons for this are not entirely altruistic. He realized that it is possible that he could face such indictments. Secondly, the court lacks legitimacy if non-white nations are targeted specifically for their disagreements over Western foreign policy. The destruction of Libya was not a success for the Deby regime. The only positive result is a factor that is speculative. As the years advance, the US will be come more dependent on the Idriss Deby presidency. He could get more US weapons and money, which means Chad will become more powerful. Chad's neighbors could interpret this as a threat. Chad has been getting stronger regionally by intervening in other countries. Chad was involved in Mali assisting the French in fighting terrorist groups coming from Libya. Chad has been used as a base for both France and the United States. Chad intervened in Nigeria in attempt to disrupt Boko Haram. Chadian troops entered Dikwa a small town and killed up to 200 fighters. These intrusions seem rare, but they are bound to continue. Nigeria is not the only country of  Chadian military involvement or operations, but also the African Central Republic. The Seleka rebel uprising in the African Central Republic was facilitated by Chad. Francois Bozize was deposed and the country has been in a state of chaos. The irony was that Chadian troops were part of the UN peace keeping force in the African Central Republic.Niger has not faced any Chadian activity as of yet, but it could be a possibility. Chad's relations with China add a larger global context. China began bilateral relations with Chad in 1972. Relations were broken when Chad decided to recognize Taiwan in 1997. Chad later reversed this policy. Since that change in policy, China continues to invest in Chad.  

The oil sector has become an area of interest to China. There still is a dilemma for Chad. For the last eight years the US and China are on the brink of possible confrontation. President Obama's Asia Pivot and the territorial disputes in the South China Sea have created a rift between Washington and Beijing. These two powerful nations may force Chad to choose a political block. Just like the the situation with Libya and the West Chad would again have to navigate fluctuating international relations. China and the US are in a state of indirect conflict, exacerbated by America's desire for global hegemony. Africa, Asia, and Latin America could be swept up in this Cold War like scenario.Chad has to navigate through the intricacies of changing alliances. China has advanced in Africa further than America. The reason African nations may prefer cooperation with China is that they do not have neocolonial ambitions. There are no demands for African nations to adopt communist principles or Chinese culture. The US and the EU block expects that non-western countries adopt their political systems and culture. Even though the US supports oppressive regimes, it does attempt to impose certain values to appear to up hold the myth of being the leader of the "free world." Meek suggestions are given to close allies, but fall on deaf ears. Idriss Deby never intends to reform and US suggestions will make him more recalcitrant. There have been issues with China and Chad in business dealings.  Chad cancelled Chinese permits in 2014 due to environmental violations by the Chinese oil company CNPC. The exploration permits allow companies to find new drilling sites in the country. Chad however, will not allow environmental degradation by foreign companies. The fine was estimated to be about 1.2 billion dollars. Thanks to Chinese business in the country Chad has used funds to modernize the army, build public infrastructure,  and establish more roads. Unfortunately, the average Chadian citizen has not benefited from these economic investments. The National Chinese Petroleum Company refused to pay the fine and there was a large dispute. Chad even went to the Commercial Court to file a suit. Chad has been allowing companies to do oil exploration since 2003, but the relations with China have been challenging. Chadian oil workers also had disputes with Chinese companies over working conditions and salaries. Idriss Deby will not allow this to continue, because it is a threat to his regime. The image he wants to present is one of all powerful master and another nation violating laws will be punished. Xi Jingping has realized this problem could rupture the relationship between a strategic partner in Africa. Idriss Deby met Xi Jingping in October of 2015 to discuss aid assistance.  This was for the China Poverty Reduction and Development Forum. There were several agreements made in the areas of telecommunications, agriculture, energy cooperation, industrial park development, infrastructure, and programs to prevent desertification. Economic ties, education, and job training were emphasized . This is an attempt to apologize for past blunders of Chinese oil companies. Considering the reaction to China's reaction to the recognition of Taiwan and then reversal, relations can be erratic. Idriss Deby knows that his survival is based on the number of internal and external alliances he can make. When one relationship deteriorates, another can take its place. The problem with this method is unpredictability. Nations which have their leadership change every few years means that Idriss Deby has to adjust constantly. A presidential election occurring in the US could mean a positive or negative outcome for his regime .  Secretary of State John Kerry has continued his predecessor's Africa policies. An aggressive posture on the across Africa has been pushed forward, with the hopes that Ethiopia, Nigeria, and Kenya will assist in US goals. Chad has been doing this for at least  a decade. The fear that Idriss Deby has is that his Western partners could betray him in the future. The United States has been notorious for disposing of leaders that it no longer finds useful. Joseph Mobutu who ruled Zaire was abandoned by Washington. Deby was president already seven years when he saw the fall of the Mobutu regime. Ever since the collapse of the Soviet Union, the US became less dependent on authoritarian regimes enforcing its foreign policy on other continents. This means there is no survival guarantee the United States use to promise. Idriss Deby has constantly reoriented Chad depending on the circumstances. Another major foreign policy rearrangement is just developing. 

           Idriss Deby by the early 2010's realized that the West was not as reliable. It was clear that after the NATO and the continued ICC warrant for Omar Al-Bashir adjustments had to be made to prevent Chad from being the next victim of regime change. Deby is a survivor, because he knows how to improvise. The internal opposition has not been destroyed completely. To deal with them he turned to the Middle East. Chad has sought to create stronger relations with Saudi Arabia for a number of reasons. The first is it can help with the elimination of the Rally for Democratic Forces and other armed groups seeking his overthrow. If Chad can convince Saudi Arabia that the opposition is part of a network of terrorism, he can finally end these organizations once and for all. The resistance has been weakened over the past decade, but never fully evaporated. Saudi Arabia's military power has been increasing with extensive involvement in Yemen, Bahrain, and Syria. Although aligned to the West, King Salman is pursuing a policy that is more aggressive than Washington wants. This could even lead to war with Iran. This regional power would be another buttress for Idriss Deby , if and when France or the US attempt to abandon him. 

Sudan has realized that Saudi Arabia can also provide a shield from its enemies. As a result it is now participating in military operations in Yemen. It would be no surprise if Chad, Sudan, and Saudi Arabia form a much larger military alliance. Idriss Deby by doing so, hopes to see military victories further legitimize his long term rule and decimate enemies at home. The excuses of fighting terrorism can be used to justify autocratic rule in Chad. Simultaneously, it can silence critics and political dissidents. Idriss Deby now has many countries he can manipulate for aid and support. Not all are completely reliable. He plays China and the US off against one another, while providing bases for France and as a net of safety  will use Saudi Arabia. Survival comes first and everything else is second.  

      Looking at Idriss Deby's political career, there are reasons why he should not be AU chairman. His connections to France and now more so the United States are troubling. It seems as if he will be ruling Chad and directing the AU on their behalf. The African Union should stand for independence, solidarity, anti-colonialism, and Pan-African values. Idriss Deby does not believe or embody any of these convictions. The treatment of his fellow Chadians and his neighbors reveals he is opposed to these values. His main objective is to increase his political power and Chad's at the expense of others. It appears he will continue to rule for decades, becoming more powerful. Promises of internal reform are vanishing under military incursions into Nigeria, Cameroon, and Mali. These wars enable former colonial masters to reenter the continent and have a permanent military presence. An AU chairman must be the enemy and challenger to Western domination. Most importantly, they must not only focus on stopping US-EU operations in Africa, but undermine it across the world. President Deby vacillates on certain positions when it suits his own agenda. Idriss Deby could send the AU down a more dangerous path. He has no problem intervening in other African countries and this could lead to a much larger expansion of AU troops in other areas. The AU mission in Somalia has created much controversy. The Burundi crisis could be exacerbated further if Idriss Deby presses for deployment. Chad will see an surge in influence across Africa. Robert Mugabe was best suited for the role due to his ideology and his long record of challenging Western imperialism. Idriss Deby uses Western imperialism to his advantage. He has stayed in power for two decades by deceit and perceptive cunning. Exploiting every alliance has allowed him to become a permanent fixture in the African political landscape. Considering that Idriss Deby is much younger than previous chairmen, he will remain at that post for sometime. If this is so, the AU will morph into a tool to advance agendas of  world powers. It is uncertain how this will alter the path of Africa, but for now Idriss Deby is the ne AU chairman.   

Sources 

Arnold, Guy. Africa a Modern History. London: Atlantic Books, 2005. 

Appiah, Anthony, and Henry Louis Gates. "Chad." Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience. New York: Basic Civitas, 1999. 408-09. 

"Libya Seals Peace Deal With Chad." BBC News. BBC, 26 Oct. 2007. Web. 22 Feb. 2016. <http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7063093.stm>.

        

        

"Xi Jinping Meets with President Idriss Deby of Chad." Xi Jinping Meets with President Idriss Deby of Chad. N.p., 07 Oct. 2015. Web. 22 Feb. 2016. <http://gr.china-embassy.org/eng/zgyw/t1307074.htm>.

French, Howard W., and Lydia Polgreen. "China, Filling a Void, Drills for Riches in Chad." The New York Times. The New York Times, 12 Aug. 2007. Web. 22 Feb. 2016. <http://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/13/world/africa/13chinaafrica.html?pagewanted=all>.

"Chad Says It Will Not Execute ICC Warrant against Libya’s Gaddafi."SudanTribune.com. N.p., 01 May 2011. Web. 22 Feb. 2016. <http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?article38950>.

Hansen, Ketil. "Chad’s Relations with Libya, Sudan, France and the US."Peacebuilding.org. Norwegian Peacebuilding Centre, 15 Apr. 2011. Web. 21 Feb. 2015. <http://www.peacebuilding.no/layout/set/print/Regions/Africa/Publications/Chad-s-relations-with-Libya-Sudan-France-and-the-US>.

Mitfass, Hilary. "US Support for Chad May Destabilize the Sahel."Aljazeera.com. N.p., 06 Mar. 2015. Web. 21 Feb. 2016. <http://america.aljazeera.com/opinions/2015/3/us-support-for-chad-may-destabilize-the-sahel.html>.

Unrest in Uganda As Yoweri Museveni Holds on To Power

Since 1986, Yoweri Museveni has been president of Uganda winning multiple terms. It is clear that there has been some form of electoral fraud over the years. Opposition figures are normally jailed during the election campaign. Uganda has never been democratic. British colonial domination, the Idi Amin regime, and the political failures of Milton Obote put Uganda in a cycle of authoritarian rule. This time, protests have emerged against the Ugandan strongman president Museveni. There seems to be a movement developing to put an end to presidents serving for life or having unlimited terms. Current African leaders no longer serve the interest of their state, but their former colonial masters. There are only a few leaders who challenge the EU- US block. Robert Mugabe continues to support Pan-African ideology and anti-colonial politics. While there are leaders who are political puppets, other seek another path to selfishly amass power to themselves. Yoweri Museveni's vision is to become the most powerful leader in East Africa at the expense of his fellow Ugandans. While he is not a puppet of Western interests, his political vision is remain in power indefinitely. 

Booker T. Washington on Love

Black Women In History - Dr. John Henrik Clarke

Black women, just like other women have been ignored in historical study. Black women were pivotal contributors to African history. Every freedom struggle, war, or challenge Black women were a part of. African societies although still male dominated, did accept women in power. Europeans when they colonized different parts of the globe, brought their cultural values in regards to women. When Christianity became a dominant religion in Europe, women's status lowered. Women's status in Africa was higher compared to Europe. Women in ancient Egypt could own property and inherit land . Ancient Greek civilization sought to control women by force of law. Dr. John Henrik Clarke eloquently articulates "that men oppress women because they fear them in authority." The fact that matrilineal inheritance was a major foundation of African society, proves that women were valued. Social studies must work to incorporate women's history into a standard curriculum for students. A society that degrades women will only create circumstances that will lead to its destruction. 

A General Overview of Asian History

Asia has a history extending back to the ancient period. East Asian, West Asian, and South Asian  civilizations did emerge independently of one another, but there is a common factor among them. The river valley systems are what sustained survival in these locations. The Tigris and Euphrates rivers in Mesopotamia provided numerous states and empires a base to build. The Indus Valley was the foundation of Indian civilization. China's base of civilization would be the Huang He River ( Yellow River). Empires emerged  that included the Han Dynasty, Sumer, Akkad, Annam, Gupta, Champa, Khmer, and many more. The Pacific Ocean islands also saw the development of indigenous societies. Polynesians navigated the waters frequently before European arrival. At one point it seemed as if Asian civilization would have hegemony over the world. The Age of  Exploration changed this has European states began to find new trade routes and establish overseas colonies. When the 19th century came, Asia found itself under European colonization. Ottoman Turkey and Japan were exceptions to the rule. The Ottoman Empire by  1878 was weakened to the point of being referred to as "the sick man of Europe." Japan when through a program of intense modernization and industrialization to avoid European conquest. It stated imperial expansion of its own, which would eventually lead it to conflict with European powers. After World War II, Asian nations fought for independence from their former colonizers. Asia became another battle ground in the Cold War  and the wars in Indochina became a lasting symbol of that. The collapse of the Soviet Union caused more complications as the US sought to become a global enforcer, forming increasing tensions with China. The 21st century could see an Asian resurgence as China and India are becoming  more important to international markets.
      Southwest Asia has a long history dating back as far as 2800 B.C.E. Major states and kingdoms included Sumer, Akkad, and Babylonia. This entire region was known as Mesopotamia (now modern day Iraq). The Assyrian Empire emerged and fell around 612 B.C.E. The Euphrates and the Tigris river were the foundations of the civilization of the Levant. The area was under constant threat from invaders. Assyria fell due to a combination of Persian, Babylonian, and Medes  invasion. The Babylonians who ruled under a Chaldean dynasty would be conquered by the Persians in 539 B.C.E. The Persians would dominate the Levant, until they faced a challenge from the Greeks. Cyrus the Great built the empire into a mighty force. Darius I was the king to consolidate the administrative structure of the Persian Empire. Alexander the Great a Macedonian warrior king, had united Greece and sought to build an empire of his own. Around 330 B.C.E Alexander targeted the Persian Empire for conquest. The Persian Empire was in disarray from the onslaught. Only when Alexander died from a fever did Persia recover gradually. Parthia became a successor empire and its competitor became the Roman Empire in the Middle East. A real threat came when Rome added Syria to its territories in 63 B.C.E. The Parthian Empire would collapse  and the Sassanians then took control of Persia. They would also be in conflict with Rome's successor empire Byzantium.Besides being an area of empires, the Middle East gave birth to the world's most prominent religions. Islam, Christianity, and Judaism emerged from the Levant. These religions have an eclectic mix of ideas and philosophies that predate their existence. Zoroastrianism had articulated the monotheistic concept and many ideas from that Persian religion can be seen in Islam, Christianity, and Judaism.

The ironic twist is that these monotheistic religions could be a source of  contention or unity. The Islamic empires that emerged kept the region stable. The Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates allowed for a low level of conflict. That did not stop Turkish invaders form conquering it. After the two caliphates collapsed the Ottoman Empire would take its place.  It would remain a dominant power up until the 19th century, when European power surpassed it. 

        India and China were two major forces through out Asian history. India's history can be traced back to the 4th millennium. India had commercial links with Southwest Asia. Often it is a mistake made to assume that ancient civilizations were isolated. Various peoples made contact, but the extent is still unknown. Many were probably aware that the world was much larger than their immediate region. Dravidians were the original inhabitants of India, who were later invaded by the Aryans. These Central Asian warriors entered the area between 1500 and 1200 B.C.E.  The Aryans brought with them a Sanskrit writing system and Indo-European language. The Indus Valley was also being transformed with the introduction of new ideas. Hinduism emerged from a combination of Aryan religious convictions and Dravidian customs. Around the 6th century B.C.E  other religions would appear. Jainism and Buddhism appeared in the Indus Valley region. Buddhism would spread to East and Southeast Asia, but would have limited influence in the place of its inception. Under Chandragupta Maurya the Magadha Kingdom was invaded, starting the process of building a vast subcontinent empire. Access to the Ganges Valley increased the power of any king who successfully procured it. Asoka reign expanded what his grandfather started. He would dominate the Indian Subcontinent from 274 to 232 B.C.E. Chandragupta I would eventually expanded his territory and accomplished the unification of the Indian subcontinent. He established himself through invasions north around 320 C.E.  Afterwards India was under the rule of the Gupta dynasty. They would remain the most powerful political force for 200 years. 

China has some similarities in its historical path. The foundation of Chinese civilization like India is the river valley system. China also like India was never a fully unified empire when it emerged. The earliest Chinese dynasty was Xia and rose from the Huang He Valley. This occurred around 2000 B.C.E. There was another dynasty that became a rival known as the Shang. Based in the north, it was more powerful reaching a level of prominence in 1400 B.C.E. The Shang would be deposed by the Zhou by 1027 B.C.E. Major disorder occurred during the Warring States Period. Confucius would emerge with political and ethical philosophy that still has influence on East Asia today. Respect for one's elders, conducting government in an ethical manner, and valuing knowledge were critical attributes of Confucian thought. The insurrection and disorder in China did not last long, when the state of Qin grew in power. The Han dynasty came to power in 206 B.C.E and they successfully subdued invaders from the north. The establishment of the Great Wall allowed for a perfect defense against Mongol tribes. Chinese influence would reach as far as Central Asia. Korea became a vassal state, while Tonkin and Yue were annexed into the empire. The Vietnamese faced invasion from China, but were resistant to domination. This explains why the northern part of Vietnam has elements of Chinese culture. India and China became dominant forces, but other Asian states contributed to the development of the continent.

       Japan and Korea followed a some what different path. They were influenced by Chinese culture, but still had unique indigenous cultural identity. Many peoples of Southeast Asia can trace their ancestry back to the migration of the Mon tribes of China. This part of Asia was developing significant cultural and economic ties to India. Empires and kingdoms developed from this trade and migration. The Khmer Empire arose in the 6th century C.E. and fell by the 15th century. The Khmer people invaded from South China, then took the Mekong Valley. The Funanese  who were the original inhabitants were absorbed. The Khmers established a great cultural center important to Buddhist history known as Angkor. Champa  was a Vietnamese kingdom that emerged by the Malay Chams. Myanmar's history as a unified state began with the Tibetan Pyu. When land contact was made, trade with India increased its power. Their Thai competitors attacked them in 835. They were raiders with limited ambition for empire building. The Burmese would then create a more stable unified state basing the capital at Pagan. The Burmese centuries later would exact vengeance with the invasion of the Thai capital Ayutthia in 1569. Korea's path was one of occupation, division, and eventual reunification. Around the 4th century B.C.E Tungusic tribes settled the lands. China then put Korea in a vassal state position. They occupied areas of northwestern Korea from 108 B.C.E to 313. The problem was that there were three rival kingdoms. As Koreans fought among themselves, this allowed China to have more leverage in the region. The Koguryo Kingdom took unilateral action by expelling the Chinese. The Korean peninsula was united by the 660s under the rule of the Silla dynasty. When that ruling family lost power the Koryo dynasty was the successor ( 936- 1392). King Yi who overthrew the Koryo moved the state closer to China in policy and adopted neo-Confucius principles.       

Japan's history was between opening up to other states or complete isolation from the world. The suspicion of foreigners may seem xenophobic, but in  the context of Asia's past it seemed practical. War and invasions were common, just like any other continent. Japan became even more suspicious with arrival of Europeans to Asia. When contact was made it was a signal to modernize and build its military. These was a task Japan could handle considering it was able to stop Mongol and Chinese invasions. 

      From the early common era to the 17th century Turkish nomads were building empires of their own. Simultaneously, Arabs were spreading Islam to the world. The Muslim caliphates would be established in Baghdad and Damascus. The Umayyad Caliphate appeared in 661. The Abbasid Caliphate would last from 762 to 1258. The Muslim conquest would expand from North Africa, Spain, and northwestern India in the Sind Valley. Arab control of Islamic civilization waned and shifted to Persia in the late 700s. Around 1055 the Seljuk Empire arose taking Baghdad as a prize. Nothing prepared them for the onslaught of Genghis Khan, who formed the largest land empire in history. Timur another Turko-Mongol warrior would establish an empire based around Persia and Iraq in the late 14th century. The Ottoman Turks were the ones to dismantle Byzantium by the invasion of Constantinople in 1453. It maintained dominance of the Middle East until its collapse in 1918. There were other lands that maintained independence such as Afghanistan, Persia, and India. Conflicts still happened between neighbors. India faced invasion from the Afghan King Mahmud of Ghazni  in 1000. Muslim conquerors entered India multiple times, but were only able to establish a permanent state in 1206. This was known as the Delhi Sultanate. Muslims then had a foothold in the Indian subcontinent. The Moghuls owe their success to that early Muslim kingdom. While India and Persia faced invasion and a process of regaining independence, China adjusted differently to foreign invaders. The conquerors would become sinicized, meaning they adopted Chinese culture and governance systems. China's dynastic periods of the Tang ( 618- 906),  Northern Song (906-1127),  and Sung (1127- 1279)  saw the rise of high cultural achievement. There artistic and scientific achievements were so impressive, that Mongol rulers adopted their ideas. Kublai Khan the Mongol ruler seemed to favor Chinese culture more than his Mongol culture. The Yuan dynasty (1271-1368) even though it had Mongol leaders was still at its heart culturally sinicized. The following dynasty was the Ming (1368-1644), which was indigenous. Then the Manchus invaded and would remain in power until 1911. The Qing dynasty did not fall from an invader, but a public that was no longer willing to tolerate their rule. When the Turko-Mongols hold on Central Asia and Siberia weakened Slavic peoples from Europe began to colonized the land. 

Tartars and Turko-Mongols had to compete against Europeans that were taking their land. Russia's rise as an empire would subject Turkish and Mongol peoples to domination. European contacts often lead to conflict and subjugation of Asian societies. When the Age of Exploration approached, this signaled Asia was about to face one of its biggest challenges: modern imperialism. 

        Spain and Portugal were the first overseas empires to establish colonies in Asia. Portugal reached Calicut, India in 1498 and their invasions did not stop there. Ceylon and the Moluccas later fell to Portuguese. The Dutch and Spanish were to follow in conquest and the opening of new routes of trade. Spain took the Philippines, while the Dutch acquired Java. The Dutch also challenged the Portuguese holdings in the Moluccas. Besides loss of territory, European arrivals brought economic domination. The Dutch, British, and French discovered the best way to exploit Asia was through East India Companies. Asians were gradually losing control of their continent. The British East India Company became more powerful than the others due to the fact the British Navy ensured this. The British Empire was the most powerful on Earth and therefore had predominance economically. Robert Clive is credited for making the British East India Company a potent force and ensuring British control of India. Northern and Central Asia were not insulated from events. These areas faced Russian invasion. The end of the 18th century brought more European attacks to Asia. These resulted in numerous independent states losing their freedom. The British invaded Ceylon in 1815 and annexed Burma to its empire in 1886. Direct rule of India came in 1857. The British attempted to add Afghanistan to its domains, but was defeated. Singapore was subjugated in 1819 and the Malay peninsula was fully absorbed in 1874. The British then decided to put Borneo under a protectorate status in 1888. Although there were many brutal invasions, there were still some states that maintained independence. Japan and Siam were the exceptions. Japan was forced to come out of isolation when the US threatened it with war. Commodore Matthew C. Perry forced Japan to open up its market and accept a commercial treaty. The Meiji Restoration was the point in which Japan asserted its self against European intrusion in its affairs. From 1868 to 1910 Japan became a modern empire taking possession of Formosa (1895) and Korea ( formally annexed in 1910).  Japan's greatest victory was the beating of Russia in the Russo-Japanese War( 1904- 1905). This was a shock to European powers, that an Asian nation could subdue a European empire militarily.Besides the British presence, the French held Cambodia (1863), Laos ( 1893) and Vietnam (1885). The French combined all these colonies and protectorates into the Indochinese Union in 1887. China was divided into spheres of influence by European powers under the Open Door policy. Japan also gained spheres of influence and territory after the Sino-Japanese War ( 1894-1895). China was not colonized directly, because of its vast size and difficult terrain, but lost control of its economic and internal affairs. 

 The Dutch did not have as much as the larger powers, but still maintained Indonesia. The US was a new comer to the region and took the Philippines after the Spanish-American War. Russia made a larger military advancement into Central Asia, invading Samarkand and Bhukara by 1868. Russia also added Khiva (1873) to its collection of Central Asian possessions. The British made the Suez Canal a useful trade pathway and continued to conquer more of West Asia. Aden had been a place that the British seized in 1839, which became a launching pad for other intrusions into the Middle East. Iran would face pressure from both the British and Russian Empire. Europe by the 20th century dominated most of Asia. Imperialism had a negative repercussion. When most of the world was conquered by only a few empires, it was only inevitable that they would go to war. A combination of rabid nationalism,militarism, ethnic hatred, and rival alliance systems started World War I. This war was immense in scale, involving colonial troops from all around the world. Asia was about to under go political changes. 

      World War I resulted in a change in the geopolitical landscape. The German, Russian, and Ottoman empires disappeared. New states would emerge. Turkey would become a republic in 1923 and the Arab lands would fall under European colonization through the mandate system. The British added Transjordan, Palestine, and Iraq to its territories. Syria and Lebanon would be dominated by the French. Iraq gained independence in name only in 1921, but in reality was still controlled indirectly by the British. Iran saw a change in regime with the rise of the Pahlavi dynasty in 1925. The newly formed Soviet Union was attempting to stop the Basmachi revolt. This was an armed movement of the Central Asian states who wanted independence. It began in 1916 a political issue inherited from the Czarist regime. The rebellion ended in 1934 with the Soviet Union fully incorporating their Central Asian colonies. The Soviet Union would also gain influence in Mongolia. Before it separated from China in 1911, but could not counter Soviet power. The reason Mongolia became important was that it provided a buffer zone against a more aggressive Japan. Japan wanted to expand its empire into what was referred to as the greater East Asia co-prosperity sphere. Japan invaded Manchuria in 1931 and declared full scale war on China in 1937. It believed it had the right to rule over all of Asia, rather than the European occupiers. Tension arose between Japan, the US, Britain, and France. When war broke out in Europe in 1939, it weakened Britain and France. Japan which forged an alliance with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy had a free hand to take Asian colonies from the Allied powers. The Axis alliance seemed as if they were going to win World War II. Military and political miscalculations reversed the tide. 

       When Japan bolted through Asia during World War II this ended European domination of the continent. Indochina was taken when France fell to Germany. The Japanese threatened India and Australia. The Axis reached their pinnacle of power in 1942. Gradually the Axis lost territory and tactical advantage. Japan and Germany never fully coordinated their attacks on the Allies. Japan signed a neutrality pact with the Soviet Union in 1941. Hitler hoped that his Far east ally would wage war on the Soviet Union. This would mean that the Soviets could be cornered, force to fight on two fronts.Japan refused, but had trouble subduing China. The Chinese Communist Party and the Kuomingtang collaborated in expelling Japanese forces. It was the Chinese Civil War, which caused disunity in China. After the removal of the warlords the Kuomingtang and the Communist fought for control. The Japanese Empire used this internal disorder to slowly conquer China. The war in Europe ended before the war in the Pacific. Japan continued to fight on until it was attacked with nuclear weapons. Hiroshima and Nagasaki were devastated and Japan surrendered ending World War II. The decision that US made of using the atom bomb remains controversial to this day. Europe was in ruins and it was impossible for them to reassert the colonial order. Asians had seen that the West was not invincible and fought for freedom. 

        Decolonization after World War II swept around the Asian continent. India was granted independence from the British Empire in 1947. Burma and Ceylon freed themselves of the British yoke in 1948. The Dutch were driven from Indonesia in 1949. The mandate system was dissolving and new states were formed in the Middle East. The rapid decolonization process did have political complications. The colonizers that made boundaries without consideration to ethnic,religious,  and regional  tensions. The point of doing this was to divide and rule, so that the masses would not revolt .India would find itself in conflict with Pakistan throughout most of the 20th century stemming from Muslim and Hindu conflict. There were divisions among Arabs, Turks, and Kurds. This was complicated further with the establishment of Israel in 1948. The influx of Jewish refugees from Eastern Europe came displacing Palestinians. Decolonization became intertwined with Cold War politics.Korea and Vietnam faced challenging struggles to obtain national sovereignty. The Vietnamese defeated the French in 1954, but the country was still divided between a Communist north and a West leaning south. The Vietminh had fought the Japanese in World War II, the French, and would later face the United States. The Vietminh was focused more on Vietnamese nationalism rather than seeking political alliance with China or Russia.China and Vietnam had animosity for each other dating back as far as the Tang dynasty. Vietnam was able to play both Russia and China off against each other to get aid. The US during the early years of the Cold War saw communism as monolithic; they were merely puppets of the Soviet Union. This was not true, due to the fact that under Nikita Khrushchev relations with China deteriorated. Mao Zedong did not like Khrushchev's reforms in Russia.Maoism was different in theory and practice than Russian communism. The US did not only target Russia in its anti-communist crusade, China, Indonesia, and Vietnam were marks for harassment. This was the containment policy. The US was going to attempt to stop the spread of communism by intervening directly or covertly around the globe. The US went to Vietnam in an advisory role supporting the South Vietnamese government against North Vietnam. Around 1965 direct intervention occurred later engulfing Laos and Cambodia. Sukarno was deposed in Indonesia by a CIA plot with the military due to his anti-colonial stance and his acceptance of the PKI. The PKI was the largest communist party outside both Russia and China. The Korean War ended in 1953 with a cease-fire and ever since their has been hostility between North Korea and the US. The intervention that happened in Korea was something the US did not want to repeat in Vietnam. Being an occupying force lead to America's defeat and Vietnam would unify under communist rule in 1975.  The 20th century witnessed a series of Indo-Pakistani Wars, Arab-Israeli Wars, and the Sino-Vietnamese War of 1979. Myanmar, Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines  saw the development of internal rebellions and insurgencies. The Asian continent has still been recovering from conflicts of the Cold War. 

     The 21st century demonstrates that global economic power is shifting. China has risen both economically and militarily. Other Asian nations became economically mobile like Taiwan, Singapore, South Korea, and Hong Kong. These became known as the Asian tiger economies. These countries charted their own paths to development rather than suggestions by the IMF or World Bank. Japan had risen economically through the development of a remarkable electronics and automobile industry. While other nations rose, others continue to struggle. Laos, Cambodia, Indonesia, Malaysia , Vietnam,, and Myanmar struggle with poverty and a low standard of living. China has developed a strong economy, but the rural poor have seen no benefits. The market reforms that were implemented by Deng Xiaoping had devastating consequences. Rural poor now migrate to the cities for work. There they labor in unreasonable conditions for minimal pay. Income disparity continues to grow been the privileged elite and the working majority. West Asia also saw a shift. As more people became dissatisfied with their leaders, the movement to radical political Islamism became stronger. US interventions and involvement in Iraq and Afghanistan caused mass destabilization. Saddam Hussein once a US ally, became an enemy after Iraq invaded Kuwait in 1990. After Iraq's removal from Kuwait the US continued to have military bases in Saudi Arabia and other Gulf monarchy states . Combined with the continued support of Israel and support for regimes that Arabs reject, the image of the US became unfavorable in regional public opinion. A more powerful China in the East has caused tension among Vietnam, Japan, the Philippines, and Indonesia. The South China Sea dispute has divided Asia. The US has taken note of this, by attempting to make Asia Pacific a sphere influence once more. India has been increasing its regional power for the past decade. There are even rumors it seeks to make sustainable peace with Pakistan. There has been a long history of conflict between Asian nations, but at this time it could mean the loss of independence from external forces. It is impossible to predict the future, but it appears as if Asia is on the rise once more.  

Further Reading 

    "Asia." Encyclopedia of Knowledge. Vol. 2. Danbury, CT: Grolier, 1991. 201-08.