Fascism was a far-right political ideology that supported aggressive nationalism, militarism, and anti-democratic government. Between 1919 and 1945 fascism became a threat to global security with its desire to eradicate opposing political ideologies. The reason it originated in Europe was due to the culture, ideas, and imperial political philosophy. European countries were at one time mostly monarchies. Absolutism became a model of government when European states became more centralized. Government power was challenged by the Enlightenment, which demanded that the state should limit its power and respect the rights of citizens. By the 19th century Europe experienced a wave of ethnic nationalism and demands for constitutional government. The political experiment was not successful in all European states. The age of modern imperialism and a new emphasis on racial identity stifled genuine democratic revolution. France and the British Empire emerged as the strongest European powers. Germany and Italy went through a process of becoming unified nation-states, with a desire to compete. Large power competition and imperial ambitions resulted in World War I. Germany was defeated and forced to accept harsh terms of the Versailles Treaty. Italy was among the victors, but did not gain anything from siding with the Allies. The Russian, Ottoman, and German empires collapsed creating new states in Europe. The social and political devastation created an unstable atmosphere in which fascism could flourish. Economic collapse, civil unrest, and unemployment were so common that the people looked for order in a chaotic world. Fascism emerged as a popular mass movement branching off into Italian Fascism and German Nazism . These branches of fascism with some minor differences shared certain traits : the love of warfare, social Darwinist thought, violence as a political tool, and racism. Fascism was the total rejection of humanism, Enlightenment philosophy, and liberalism. Fascism as a global political force was defeated in World War II, but its concepts and ideas appear in fringe movements and hate groups.
The origins of fascism were rooted in the ideas of philosopher Georges Sorel. The French philosopher's ideology would have a profound influence on the thought of Benito Mussolini. Sorel contributed to the concept of national syndicalism, which was a reactionary and authoritarian movement in France. Prior to this development syndicalism was a leftist movement with socialist objectives. The syndicalist wanted to have Marxists and anarchists collaborate in a unified revolutionary front. This attempt failed miserably causing many to become disillusioned. This was the point in the late 19th century in which syndicalism broke into factions, with the authoritarian section becoming more powerful. Charles Maurras of Action franciase would become a political collaborator with Sorel. These new groups in France were opposed to liberalism. pacifism, secularism, and the growing individualism in western society. The Sorelians and Action franciase formed an alliance in 1910. Both Sorel and Maurras believed that humanitarianism was degrading the quality of European civilization. France and the whole of the continent needed dramatic revival. Benito Mussolini who would become leader of the first fascist state read Sorel's works. What captivated him the most was the idea of national myth. The shift to the far-right came for Mussolini when World War I broke out. Italy he believed that the war was an opportunity to rise to greatness on the international stage. This caused criticism and condemnation form his fellow socialists who disagreed with his opinion on intervention. Expelled from the Italian Socialist Party Mussolini became a devoted nationalist. The national myth was in the view of Sorel a great story to energize the masses to embrace patriotism. Through the national myth values of a country can be officially established. The national myth Mussolini developed was that Italy was destined to establish a New Roman Empire. Adolf Hitler dreamed of establishing a Third Reich that would last 1000 years. The fascists thought of their people as unique with the right to rule and conquer the world.
Nations should not seek a peace in the fascist ideology. Diplomacy, however could still be employed to reach goals of territorial expansion. The Munich conference created the false image that Germany and Italy wanted a stable peace.German troops later invaded Czechoslovakia and Italy absorbed Albania. Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression pact, which had a major security impact on France. Closing off the eastern front, allowed Germany more space to counter the British Empire and France simultaneously. The Third Reich was to be a large Germanic empire, which would rival that of the Holy Roman Empire and the unified German Empire. Italy's concept of New Rome was to reassert the country's level of power it had in the ancient world. Militarism was part of the fascist ideology to encourage settlement in conquered areas. War was not just for glory, rather it was to establish more space for their populations. Lebensraum was a political concept utilized making the claim the German state demands territory to settle to support its citizens. War and militarism served other purposes other than empire building. It was a method of eliminating competing political and economic systems. Fascism could not coexist with democratic governments. Having a competing political system would always be a challenge to ambitions of imperial domination.
Fascism sought to eliminate democracy, liberalism, and individualism. These ideas and political systems were a threat to the movement. It was not enough to liquidate opposition within their own borders. Conformist thought had to be imposed upon the whole world. Parliamentary democracy to fascist was an ineffective system. It was chaotic by nature and could not solve the problems efficiently. People do not rule themselves in the fascist convictions. They need a strong and determined leader to assert control. Dictatorship was needed to protect the state. Liberalism was viewed as decadent and selfish. The state should matter more than the rights of the individual. Pluralism only produced inaction and aided the spread of instability. The people as a collective in terms of thought and action are better off being directed by a leader not restrained in political power. Fascists articulated this as a cause for the greater good, but was designed to curtail civil rights and liberties. One leader has the majority of political power and one party dominates government. The Nazi Party dominated the courts, schools, churches, and all organizations in Germany. The Italian Fascist Party also worked on a similar model having complete control of the press and entertainment. The assault on liberalism also took a cultural tone. Fascists presented themselves as defenders of traditional values and liberals part of a degenerate culture. This attracted many non-fascist conservatives who were fearful of leftists coming to power through elections. Women's roles were to be strictly that of wife and mother. Reproducing as much children as possible was their national duty, for those children would become builders of the state. The family unit was to be part of the state mechanism. Fascism wanted to replace the individual with the idea of a "new man." The "new man" would be an person willing to sacrifice themselves for the fascist cause and create a stronger society. What would emerge from this process would be a totalitarian society in which life revolves around one political belief system . War with France and Great Britain was inevitable. If Britain had fallen, the United States would have been the next logical target of fascist aggression. Fascism could not have international competitors when advancing geopolitical objectives.
Racism and aggressive nationalism constituted a major part of fascist ideology. Hitler and Mussolini exalted their people above others, while vituperating groups considered inferior. Nazi Germany persecuted the European Jewish population resulting in the Holocaust. During Mussolini's regime more violence was inflicted in Libya to make it more Italian.Anti-semitism and Anti-African racism were part of the fascist ideology. Italy was in comparison less anti-Semitic , however enacted its race laws when forming a closer alliance with Germany in 1938. Much of the racism fascism espoused came from eugenics, pseudoscience, and traditional European colonial prejudice. Nazism promoted the myth that the Germans were a special people. The Aryan race was the greatest contributor to world civilization in Nazi ideology. The master race was destined to rule the world and dominate the inferior races. Racism extended beyond just skin color, there was an effort to make fascist nations culturally pure. German and Italian culture in the fascist belief system was seen as superior to other nationalities. Internationalism was also rejected, even though fascist movements emerged in various countries. Brazil, Chile, and South Africa had active fascist movements. The British Union of Fascists and the Silver Legion in the US were the most notable groups in the western democracies. Aggressive nationalism was connected to racism. A people that sees themselves as superior to others is more willing to dehumanize people who are different. Scapegoating and prejudice on a massive scale makes it easier to manipulate a population into acts of mass violence. Teaching youth to hate also ensured fascism could spread. The result was genocide and numerous atrocities during World War II. Gypsies, Slavs, and Afro-Germans became victims of the Nazi regime. Social Darwinist theory was then applied to other groups. The disabled, gay, or terminally ill became subject to persecution. Inequality, discrimination, and murder became justified because of the idea that certain people were genetically inferior. Fascism dehumanized various races, religions, and nationalities.
Populism was used to ensure political factionalism or protest was not possible. Fascist parties by saying they were with the people allowed them to manipulate public frustration. Public anger could be directed at their political opponents such as liberals and Marxists. Fascists sided with the upper class elite, even though they espoused grievances with elements of the capitalist system. German populism during this period evolved from reactionary theories of 19th century philosophy. The Volk concept was a reaction to the Enlightenment. This group of thinkers espoused nationalism , the superiority of German culture, and the need for unification in the 1800s. This group became more racist and extreme, breaking away from historicists. The Nazi adopted this far-right philosophical ideas. The German people these ideas expressed had a unique destiny. Adolf Hitler would constantly express that the Germans were destined for greatness. Benito Mussolini presented himself as a relatable figure and a friend of the common man. Fascist presented liberals as bourgeoisie elites that lacked the fortitude to confront economic and political challenges. Farmers, shopkeepers, and workers became more responsive to the fascist message due to populist articulation. The upper class elites favored this, because it directed outrage related to wealth inequality at another target. Presenting fascist as defenders of the people became useful propaganda, which their opponents could not neutralize. The hardships of the common person were not the elite that cause the depression rather the enemies of the fascist movement. The fascist movement by using populism as a political tool attempted to show that it was a real revolutionary movement. Such an assertion was spurious considering it still supported cultural traditionalism. Although Christianity was not compatible with fascist belief, it was useful in manipulating older conservatives. Using the language of rejuvenation of society attracted younger sections of the population. Without populism the fascist dictatorships could not have consolidated power.
Fascism was defeated with the collapse of the Axis powers. The original founders may be gone, but the dangerous ideas they developed still thrive. Neofascism remains active in certain parts of Europe. The fall of communism as a political force caused serious economic consequences in the former Soviet Union. Far-right extremist groups, anti-immigrant organizations, and neo-Nazis have emerged. Hate groups also pose a serious threat to democratic societies. These groups remain small, however support could be growing in a new wave of global xenophobia. Refugees fleeing conflict zones has induced fear making people more prone to accept more extremist leaders. Anxiety surrounding the global economy also adds to this political shift. The difference between the neofascist and the fascist of the 20th century is that the current pretends to like liberal democracy. Neofascist rarely state that they want to dismantle the system. Rather, a gradual replacement with an authoritarian model is the objective. Establishing a totalitarian government would be difficult in countries that have a long history of democracy. The Wiemar Republic was a new political experiment for Germany. The majority of Italy's history was rule by monarchy. The transition to constitutional monarchy was easier in comparison to other European states. It failed to deal with the repercussions of a devastating World War I intervention. Under political and economic pressure it could not resist fascist takeover. Economic instability, corruption, and poor leadership make democratic systems vulnerable to violent ideologies.The destruction unleashed has puzzled historians, sociologists, and psychologists. The fascist movement was a dark period in world history. Fascism legacy is one of death and ruin.
The origins of fascism were rooted in the ideas of philosopher Georges Sorel. The French philosopher's ideology would have a profound influence on the thought of Benito Mussolini. Sorel contributed to the concept of national syndicalism, which was a reactionary and authoritarian movement in France. Prior to this development syndicalism was a leftist movement with socialist objectives. The syndicalist wanted to have Marxists and anarchists collaborate in a unified revolutionary front. This attempt failed miserably causing many to become disillusioned. This was the point in the late 19th century in which syndicalism broke into factions, with the authoritarian section becoming more powerful. Charles Maurras of Action franciase would become a political collaborator with Sorel. These new groups in France were opposed to liberalism. pacifism, secularism, and the growing individualism in western society. The Sorelians and Action franciase formed an alliance in 1910. Both Sorel and Maurras believed that humanitarianism was degrading the quality of European civilization. France and the whole of the continent needed dramatic revival. Benito Mussolini who would become leader of the first fascist state read Sorel's works. What captivated him the most was the idea of national myth. The shift to the far-right came for Mussolini when World War I broke out. Italy he believed that the war was an opportunity to rise to greatness on the international stage. This caused criticism and condemnation form his fellow socialists who disagreed with his opinion on intervention. Expelled from the Italian Socialist Party Mussolini became a devoted nationalist. The national myth was in the view of Sorel a great story to energize the masses to embrace patriotism. Through the national myth values of a country can be officially established. The national myth Mussolini developed was that Italy was destined to establish a New Roman Empire. Adolf Hitler dreamed of establishing a Third Reich that would last 1000 years. The fascists thought of their people as unique with the right to rule and conquer the world.
National myths were more powerful than actual facts. George Sorel embraced the notion of a new ideology saving Europe from social and political decay. The desire for rebirth to a dynamic Europe was a common theme among these movements. Prior to World War I, fascism if it had existed would not have been as popular. The following destabilization of the war, the Versailles Treaty, and the Great Depression allowed for Sorel's ideas to be put into practice. He did not live to see how it would develop. Before his death in 1922 he wrote " the fascists are not entirely wrong to invoke my opinions." This would have been the movement George Sorel wanted to spread. The threats to Europe were liberalism and Marxism in his view and a far-right movement must combat these elements.
Fascism was viciously opposed to Marxism. . This was no surprise seeing as both Marxism and communism disagreed with fascism on economics, politics, and class conflict. Totalitarian Stalinist Communism may have been similar in regards to oppression and the function of the police state, but were ideologically opposed. Fascism wanted war and thought it was a natural state. Marxism had the desire for world revolution that would overthrow the ruling classes.Fascism did change the political and social order, but there was no desire to expunge the ruling classes or traditional conservatives. The class division that existed was the natural order and fits into the idea of hierarchy based on social Darwinism. Poverty and class exploitation was an example of survival of the fittest. Race and nationality was more important than class. Humanity from the perspective of the fascist is a war like species. Races will be at war with one another, because it is the natural order. Marxists and communists did not want mass global conflict. Fascism believed in aggressive nationalism and that imperial expansion was required for survival. Italy's invasion of Ethiopia and Germany's invasion of Poland demonstrated this. Fascism's hatred of Marxism was also economic. Fascism supported capitalism as long as it was in service to the state. Fascistic corporatism was based around the idea that big business and totalitarian government could bring stability to European countries suffering under the Great Depression. Free enterprise, with some controls would by this reasoning bring back pre-World War I prosperity. The Marxist economic policy was to reject free markets and replace it with a command economy. Nazism was opposed to capitalism and communism, but it was based around anti-semitic conspiracy theory. Hitler's view was that the Jews manipulated international finance capital. Communism and capitalism were part of a large Jewish conspiracy aimed at weakening Germany. national socialism used in the context of German politics had a different meaning. Resources would be developed cooperatively with minimal interference in capitalist enterprise. The fascists would ignore class disparity, but instead promise a vision even distribution of capital among the large industrialists and working class. This promise was not kept when the Nazi and Fascist Party consolidated power. Corporations and major industrialists were favored over small business. Workers found that labor unions were banned in both Germany and Italy. Nationalism and support for the state was more important than worker's rights. The fascist movement was mindful not to follow a similar economic policy of its predecessors. Instead they focused on infrastructure and increasing employment. While there was industrial expansion, the real intent was to build a formidable war machine. Fascism need Marxism as an excuse to enact political measures to hinder public protest.
Militarism was a common characteristic of the fascist regimes. The notion was that a nation needed to expand or else it would decline. The population needed to embrace a pugnacious mentality. Propaganda was used to psychologically prepare the German and Italian public for a large conflict. The reason World War II happened was not only because of the Great Depression, but fascism's rise as a popular form of European political thought. Imperialism was necessary for fascism's existence. A political philosophy that preached violence could only survive by the highest form of violence known: war. During the 1930s both Italy and Germany began taking territory through invasion or annexation. The justification was that certain people were part of weaker nations and stronger nations had the right to conquer them. Racist claims that colonized people needed European control were often used as an excuse for aggression. The whole of industry, culture, and society was preparing for conflict in fascist states. Boys who were in the Hitler Youth were given early lessons in armed combat, so in the future they would become soldiers. Nazi Germany's economic recovery revolved around the production of tanks, airplanes, and guns. Fascist societies were transformed into supporting military values. Obedience to authority, courage, and service to the state was glorified. Militarism exists as part of a struggle for the survival of the fittest in the context of social Darwinism. Strong nations will naturally dominate weaker ones.
Fascism sought to eliminate democracy, liberalism, and individualism. These ideas and political systems were a threat to the movement. It was not enough to liquidate opposition within their own borders. Conformist thought had to be imposed upon the whole world. Parliamentary democracy to fascist was an ineffective system. It was chaotic by nature and could not solve the problems efficiently. People do not rule themselves in the fascist convictions. They need a strong and determined leader to assert control. Dictatorship was needed to protect the state. Liberalism was viewed as decadent and selfish. The state should matter more than the rights of the individual. Pluralism only produced inaction and aided the spread of instability. The people as a collective in terms of thought and action are better off being directed by a leader not restrained in political power. Fascists articulated this as a cause for the greater good, but was designed to curtail civil rights and liberties. One leader has the majority of political power and one party dominates government. The Nazi Party dominated the courts, schools, churches, and all organizations in Germany. The Italian Fascist Party also worked on a similar model having complete control of the press and entertainment. The assault on liberalism also took a cultural tone. Fascists presented themselves as defenders of traditional values and liberals part of a degenerate culture. This attracted many non-fascist conservatives who were fearful of leftists coming to power through elections. Women's roles were to be strictly that of wife and mother. Reproducing as much children as possible was their national duty, for those children would become builders of the state. The family unit was to be part of the state mechanism. Fascism wanted to replace the individual with the idea of a "new man." The "new man" would be an person willing to sacrifice themselves for the fascist cause and create a stronger society. What would emerge from this process would be a totalitarian society in which life revolves around one political belief system . War with France and Great Britain was inevitable. If Britain had fallen, the United States would have been the next logical target of fascist aggression. Fascism could not have international competitors when advancing geopolitical objectives.
Racism and aggressive nationalism constituted a major part of fascist ideology. Hitler and Mussolini exalted their people above others, while vituperating groups considered inferior. Nazi Germany persecuted the European Jewish population resulting in the Holocaust. During Mussolini's regime more violence was inflicted in Libya to make it more Italian.Anti-semitism and Anti-African racism were part of the fascist ideology. Italy was in comparison less anti-Semitic , however enacted its race laws when forming a closer alliance with Germany in 1938. Much of the racism fascism espoused came from eugenics, pseudoscience, and traditional European colonial prejudice. Nazism promoted the myth that the Germans were a special people. The Aryan race was the greatest contributor to world civilization in Nazi ideology. The master race was destined to rule the world and dominate the inferior races. Racism extended beyond just skin color, there was an effort to make fascist nations culturally pure. German and Italian culture in the fascist belief system was seen as superior to other nationalities. Internationalism was also rejected, even though fascist movements emerged in various countries. Brazil, Chile, and South Africa had active fascist movements. The British Union of Fascists and the Silver Legion in the US were the most notable groups in the western democracies. Aggressive nationalism was connected to racism. A people that sees themselves as superior to others is more willing to dehumanize people who are different. Scapegoating and prejudice on a massive scale makes it easier to manipulate a population into acts of mass violence. Teaching youth to hate also ensured fascism could spread. The result was genocide and numerous atrocities during World War II. Gypsies, Slavs, and Afro-Germans became victims of the Nazi regime. Social Darwinist theory was then applied to other groups. The disabled, gay, or terminally ill became subject to persecution. Inequality, discrimination, and murder became justified because of the idea that certain people were genetically inferior. Fascism dehumanized various races, religions, and nationalities.
Populism was used to ensure political factionalism or protest was not possible. Fascist parties by saying they were with the people allowed them to manipulate public frustration. Public anger could be directed at their political opponents such as liberals and Marxists. Fascists sided with the upper class elite, even though they espoused grievances with elements of the capitalist system. German populism during this period evolved from reactionary theories of 19th century philosophy. The Volk concept was a reaction to the Enlightenment. This group of thinkers espoused nationalism , the superiority of German culture, and the need for unification in the 1800s. This group became more racist and extreme, breaking away from historicists. The Nazi adopted this far-right philosophical ideas. The German people these ideas expressed had a unique destiny. Adolf Hitler would constantly express that the Germans were destined for greatness. Benito Mussolini presented himself as a relatable figure and a friend of the common man. Fascist presented liberals as bourgeoisie elites that lacked the fortitude to confront economic and political challenges. Farmers, shopkeepers, and workers became more responsive to the fascist message due to populist articulation. The upper class elites favored this, because it directed outrage related to wealth inequality at another target. Presenting fascist as defenders of the people became useful propaganda, which their opponents could not neutralize. The hardships of the common person were not the elite that cause the depression rather the enemies of the fascist movement. The fascist movement by using populism as a political tool attempted to show that it was a real revolutionary movement. Such an assertion was spurious considering it still supported cultural traditionalism. Although Christianity was not compatible with fascist belief, it was useful in manipulating older conservatives. Using the language of rejuvenation of society attracted younger sections of the population. Without populism the fascist dictatorships could not have consolidated power.
Fascism was defeated with the collapse of the Axis powers. The original founders may be gone, but the dangerous ideas they developed still thrive. Neofascism remains active in certain parts of Europe. The fall of communism as a political force caused serious economic consequences in the former Soviet Union. Far-right extremist groups, anti-immigrant organizations, and neo-Nazis have emerged. Hate groups also pose a serious threat to democratic societies. These groups remain small, however support could be growing in a new wave of global xenophobia. Refugees fleeing conflict zones has induced fear making people more prone to accept more extremist leaders. Anxiety surrounding the global economy also adds to this political shift. The difference between the neofascist and the fascist of the 20th century is that the current pretends to like liberal democracy. Neofascist rarely state that they want to dismantle the system. Rather, a gradual replacement with an authoritarian model is the objective. Establishing a totalitarian government would be difficult in countries that have a long history of democracy. The Wiemar Republic was a new political experiment for Germany. The majority of Italy's history was rule by monarchy. The transition to constitutional monarchy was easier in comparison to other European states. It failed to deal with the repercussions of a devastating World War I intervention. Under political and economic pressure it could not resist fascist takeover. Economic instability, corruption, and poor leadership make democratic systems vulnerable to violent ideologies.The destruction unleashed has puzzled historians, sociologists, and psychologists. The fascist movement was a dark period in world history. Fascism legacy is one of death and ruin.
References
Soucy, Robert. "Fascism." Britannica Encyclopedia. Britannica Encyclopedia Inc ., 2 Jan.2020
Hulling. Mark. Contemporary Political Ideologies Movements and Regimes. New York :
Harper Collins College Publishers, 1996.
Ebenstein, William. Great Political Thinkers Plato to Present. New York :
Holt, Rinehart and Winston Inc, 1960.
Sabine, George. A History of Political Theory. New York : Holt, Rinehart and Winston Inc, 1961.
