Psychology

Psychology can best be described as a science that examines behavior and mental processes. The word has its origins in ancient Greek. The word psyche means mind in that language. This science does have an element of controversy. Some theories are difficult to test with the scientific method. However, psychology to be truly scientific it must observe internal mental process. Neuroscience and neuroanatomy  has been helpful in this regard.  Thought, emotion, movement, and attributes of personality are considered part of  a mental process. Modern psychology puts emphasis on verifiable evidence and experimentation. Psychology has a negative past of either promoting eugenic or pseudoscientific ideas. These range from determining intelligence to claims of racial superiority. Pseudopsychology uses the language of the academic discipline, but does not utilize the scientific method. Outrageous claims made by astrologers and fortune tellers fall under pseudopsychology. There belief is that the mind is a gateway to the paranormal. It is one of many subjects like intelligent design that has no basis in fact. Psychologists fall into three major categories. Experimental psychologists are know for being involved in research with the goal of discovering new knowledge. Teachers of psychology are educators sharing their knowledge with students at the secondary and  tertiary school level. Applied psychologists are employed in both the private and public sector. They work to solve issues in schools, clinics, factories, social services, and various agencies. Psychology should not be confused with psychiatry. That field examines mental disorders from a medical perspective. They diagnose and believe mental illness can be cured. This seems questionable, because there is still much to learn about the elements and aspects of mental illness. Psychology like any other academic field has major factions. There are six perspectives that exist in psychology. The six perspectives include biological, cognitive, behavioral, whole-person (humanistic), developmental, and sociocultural. 

        The biological perspective can be traced back to the ideas of Rene Descartes. The 17th century philosopher stated that the spiritual mind was a separate entity.  To him there was a distinction between the physical and mental aspects of an individual. It was previously thought that mind and body were of one unit. Descartes reasoning led him to the conclusion that consciousness was not the product of  supernatural force. This realization allowed for a revolution in the study of biology, which would give birth to psychology. The biological perspective sees the mind as a product of the brain and its numerous functions. 

The rise of neurology, advances in medicine, and brain imagining techniques  the knowledge of the human brain has become more expansive. A sub-branch developed known as evolutionary psychology. Some have issues with this branch due to claims that appear to reference a eugenic past. Yet, this branch should not be discredited due to some unsubstantiated theories. Human beings had evolved for millions of years and this should be examined when approaching the  dynamics of the mind. 

    The cognitive perspective focuses on the aspects of  human thought. William Wundt was the first to use methods of science to uncover the mysteries of the mind. Wundt had an interest in chemistry and believed that psychology could use methods from that discipline. Wundt at the University of Leipzig began conducting experiments in 1879. What he was attempting to discover was the elements of consciousness. This gave birth to experimental psychology. Along with his students he was exploring attributes such as perception, sensation, memory, attention, emotion, thinking, language, and learning. Edward Bradford Titchener who was a student of Wundt developed structuralism. Structuralism sought to discover the components and units that constitute the mind. Although structuralist ideas were criticized, their methods are still in use. Other methods and concepts  arose from psychologists in the 20th century. William James challenged structuralism with functionalism. This idea believed mental processes can be deciphered by adaptive purpose and their specific function. 

William James thought that studying emotion was imperative. Emotions could explain the relations between the body and various behaviors. To James understanding how the mind adapts to different environments should be emphasized. Functionalist became the first in a way to use applied psychology. While structuralism and functionalism disagreed on many theories, they had a consensus in regards to introspection. This concept describes one's ability to understand their conscious mental experiences. 

William James 

The problem with the early cognitive perspective was that it was too subjective in some cases. Introspective methods were not entirely testable. Technological advancement aided the cognitive perspective. The rise of information technology such as computers gave people a greater understanding of cognition. Computers like the human mind, process information. The idea of the brain being like an organic information processing machine influenced psychology immensely. The modern cognitive perspective borrows from linguistics, medicine, and computer science. From cognitive psychology evolved cognitive neuroscience. Now with the knowledge of biology the mind and the true nature of behavior is being uncovered.  

        The third perspective is known as behavioral. This perspective challenged the idea of introspection that was favored by structuralists and functionalists. The behavioral perspective is not concerned with emotions or mental abstractions, but observable actions. John B. Watson an early behaviorist thought the only way for psychology to be credible was to examine responses and stimuli . The notion is that the environment has an influence on behavior and response. The argument of  behaviorism was that there is no evidence or method to prove the mind exists. This idea of the mind is an abstraction with no basis in anatomy or biomedical science.  

John  B. Waston

Watson argued that observation was the best method to understanding human function. B.F Skinner would also be a leading figure in the behaviorist movement. Psychology is not an inner experience, but an external one. Skinner put emphasis on the laws that govern behavior through stimuli and responses. This goes beyond responses and stimuli, but the consequences of behaviors. B.F Skinner developed operant conditioning which demonstrates the role of consequences on behaviors. People will behave differently according to possible consequences. Children for example will behave differently if there is possible reward involved. If the a child does engages in some misbehavior, a punishment will follow. Therefore a child that is disciplined by parents will stop or modify behavior to avoid punishment.  

B.F Skinner 

The possible consequences of a behavior are the most important aspect to a behaviorist. The behaviorists did not put emphasis on the unconscious. They doubted it existed. To other psychologist it was something tangible.

        The psychodynamic perspective has a desire to uncover the elements of the unconscious mind. Sigmund Freud was the proponent of this school of thought.Sigmund Freud was not actually trained as a psychologist, but had a background in medicine. His ideas would lead to the development of psychotherapy. Freud believed the route of mental illness was rooted in the unconscious mind. Our past experiences are molded by our unconscious. Freud was convinced the mind had three sections. They were the id, the ego, and the superego. The id was the representation of desires. The superego controlled behaviors and regulated inhibition. These elements constituted the human psyche. Freud developed psychoanalysis, which used a technique known as free association. This was designed to have individuals speak and reveal clues to get to the heart of their unconscious.  

Sigmund Freud 

 There are problems with this theory. The first is that the elements of the psyche cannot be observed as physical entities. It is difficult to demonstrate in a laboratory that psychoanalysis can survive the scientific method. Freud also claimed that sex was a major motivator behind human behavior. While there is some truth to that, it is not the only factor. Freud's theories have been challenged over the years, but still are used by psychiatrists. The psychodynamic perspective focused on the unconscious , but ignored the varied nature of individuals. 

         The humanistic perspective sought to understand people as individuals and how they strive for different goals. People are constantly trying to reach their potential. This process is known as self-actualization. The leading figures in this humanistic concept were Abraham Maslow  and Carl Rogers . This perspective focused on the development human ability, potential, and its gradual growth through out a person's life. Human self-concept and awareness shape emotions, thoughts, and how an individual functions. Maslow and Rogers thought that psychology got too mechanical and examining human beings requires more of a sociological approach. The basis of human nature and free will cannot be explained by psychodynamic or  behavioral theories. 

Abraham Maslow

Again, there are problems when it cannot be experimentally verified. Maslow's hierarchy of needs has not been proven to be fact. It starts with physiological needs such as food or shelter. The second need is safety. This is followed by love and the need to belong. When these needs are met, then a person develops a sense of self-esteem. The final stage is full self actualization. The model has been criticized as being too simplistic and not accounting for a wide range of human experience. There could be a child who grew up poor, but rose to prominence ( a scientist, artist, writer, or leader)  and reached self actualization. It seems as if this model is deterministic in viewpoint. It is not an entirely radical notion that most people want love and to be loved. Carl Rogers who was a therapist developed what is known as client-centered techniques.  

Carl Rogers 

This involved the therapist approaching a person with emotional warmth, respect, and developing an understanding of their issues. Talking about personal problems and having an empathetic exchange was the basis of client-centered therapy. Both Rogers and Maslow  did not have a huge body of  scientific research to enforce their theories. They did leave numerous writings that did influence practices in counseling and psychotherapy. Another branch of psychology that falls under the humanistic perspective is trait and temperament. Trait and temperament psychology states that personality and behavior are rooted in particular characteristics. Introversion and extraversion  are two examples of traits that influence personality. Introverts are more to themselves, possibly bashful, and less likely to try new experiences. The extravert is more gregarious and not afraid to meet new people. While the humanistic approach can be descriptive, the lack  experimental evidence hinders its credibility.  

       Psychologists realized that people do change over time. From birth to death an individual will not remain the same in mental state. The developmental perspective sought to answer why and how human beings change psychologically over an entire life span. The debate revolves around nature versus nurture. Developmental psychology does not perceive it as one or the other, but a combination of both. The idea is that people develop in a predictable manner. Being born, growing, and  aging  are predictable variables. Along with heredity and environment this can explain how a person develops psychologically. This is a cross section between biology and social interaction. Children were studied more than adults, due to the fact their development is rapid. They learn to walk, master speech, grow, and  transition to adult through puberty. The changes continue into adulthood with menopause and andropause. Hormones and physiological changes to effect the mental state of a person overtime. Developmental psychologists are taking an interest in changes over an entire life time, rather than just childhood. As psychology progressed, there still were areas that required further investigation. 

          Psychology throughout most of its history was dominated by white males. This lead to racist theories, eugenics, and pseudoscience being presented as credible academia. Realizing that the work of non-white psychologists was either ignored or dismissed the sociocultural perspective was developed to challenge white domination in the field. Psychology was developed mostly in Europe and North America. Robert Gurthie's monograph Even the Rat Was White: A Historical View of Psychology exposed many of the baseless theories regarding racial superiority. The psychologists of the past had little interest in the cultures of African, Asian, or South American peoples. A positive development is that the number of non-white psychologists are increasing and using the sociocultural methods. Culture does influence behavior and psychology did not give this much attention. While environment and heredity are factors culture is an essential one.  A notable concept that emerged from the sociocultural perspective was the power of the situation. Cultural forces are so powerful that they do influence behavior and mental state. The right of passage is cross cultural, but varies depending on location. Once a child reaches puberty, they are given a task to complete as a representation of their transition into adulthood. This practice prepares a child to take up new responsibilities that come with adulthood.        

  

Robert Gurthie 

Culture influences our belief systems and how individuals act with others. The sociocultural perspective goes beyond just ethnicity. It examines age, socioeconomic status, gender, sexual orientation, and religious affiliation. Psychology is a relatively young science and this is just the surface.  

      Psychology now has more influence than ever. Its techniques can be seen in advertising, education, medicine, sports, and entertainment. There are psychologists in various fields. The applied specialties include industrial and organizational psychologists, sports psychologists, engineering psychologists, school psychologists, rehabilitation psychologists, and clinical psychologists. Psychology for all the recent influence still struggles to legitimize itself as a science.Unlike physics, chemistry, biology, astronomy, and  mathematics  psychology does not have the experimental verification. The future is with neuroscience if psychology wants to be made part of the scientific family. Understanding the physiology of the human brain will legitimize psychology as a genuine science. Theoretical physics has a similar issue in regards to particles. This is solved by mathematical verification and particle accelerators. Multiple disciplines are required, when exact methods of experimentation are not available. There are many questions that still remain, but consciousness and the brain are not so simple.   

References 

Zimbardo, Phillip and McCann, Vivian.  Psychology Core Concepts. New York: Pearson,2009.

Thomas-Cotingham,Alison.  Psychology Made Simple. New York: The Phillip Lief Group, Inc, 

       2004.