The Current State of US- Cuba Relations

President Obama made a visit to Cuba to discuss a thawing in relations and the possibility of trade deals with Cuba. President Obama is the first US president to visit the island nation since 1928. The hostility the US had and in some cases still has for Cuba are rooted in Cold War history. When the Cuban Revolution occurred the United States and the Soviet Union were in a state of  intense tension. When the Communist Party took over many industries owned by the United States were nationalized. Fidel Castro made it part of his foreign policy to support anti-colonial liberation movements and accept aid from the Soviet Union. Immediately, the Eisenhower administration plotted his overthrow. President John F. Kennedy decided to continue this objective. The Bay of Pigs invasion  was launched in 1961 and ended in failure. The Cuban exile force was not strong enough to depose Castro's government. This induced a larger crisis, when Cuba allowed Russia to put nuclear missiles and launch sites on the island. The reason Fidel Castro allowed this was to prevent another US invasion. A precarious game of nuclear brinkmanship occurred and since 1962 Cuba has been under embargo. The Cold War has ended and the US only now wants to normalize relations. There was even rapprochement with Vietnam in 1996. Cuba was isolated, because it showed resistance to US foreign policy objectives and its general domineering attitude toward Latin America. Now President Obama and President Raul Castro have met to enter into a new chapter in US-Cuba relations. While it has been described as "historic" and a step in a "positive direction,"  it is obvious that there are ulterior motives. The United States is attempting to gain a foreign policy success, when numerous failures have happened unrelentingly. President Obama wants to cement his legacy with this trip, seeing as there are few domestic policy successes in his second term. Cuba wants to see business return mainly in the form of tourism. President Raul Castro realizes that if the embargo continues, revolt will follow. Cuba has no desire to be isolated economically or politically. Although this new chapter has emerged in relations it is fragile and could become contentious if certain convictions do not change.
       The Barack Obama presidency in its final term has to have a foreign policy success. The failures in Syria, Libya, and Yemen are further damaged the image of the United States. President Obama after numerous attempted regime changes, has now tried to reverse the image of the US as war maker . A perfect way to do this is to reach out to one of America's longtime enemies. Iran was the first country to experience this shift. The nuclear deal so far has been a success, but the United States is far from having normal relations with Iran. Cuba was the second nation to experience this reach out to a former enemy. However, Cuba is more aware of US intentions. Raul Castro has stated that the general foreign policy functions of Cuba will not change. It will continue to work closely with left-wing governments such as Venezuela and Bolivia. President Obama has like other presidents before him, decided to engage in disputes with these countries, because they believe the United States should not control Latin America. President Obama's visit is a way to repair the much damaged relations with Latin American nations. The people of South America and the Caribbean  have over the decades become more frustrated with US policies. The long history of US support for oppressive regimes, regime change, and intervention are still fresh in the minds of millions. Currently, with rising anti-immigrant attitudes in the US and it being espoused by the right-wing further damages relations. There is a venomous hatred that the US has for South American people, even though immigrant labor from various Latin American countries is being utilized.

President Obama almost had to visit Latin America almost as a form of apology for America's anti-Hispanic racism. The Republican Party's rhetoric has not only reached audiences in  the US, but globally. It is heard in Latin America which creates more resentment to the United States. President Obama wants to strengthen relationships in Latin America to counter balance growing Chinese and Russian power on the Eurasian landmass. This is why he visited Cuba, because the country still has high standing not just in Latin America, but around the world. Cuba may not even be the prime objective of this foreign policy shift. Russia has diplomatic relations with the island. The US may be trying to push out Russia from having diplomatic relations with Latin American nations. This could be a reaction to US failures in Ukraine and Syria, which Russia has the upper hand. Even when President Obama attempts to make a change, the traditional lecture on human rights was mentioned. Arrogant it was in tone and continued under the veil "that the young people of Cuba must decide their future" Whatever the future holds for the island, it will not be under the subjugation of the United States as many have hoped. The right-wing political establishment called President Obama's visit a surrender and appeasement to an authoritarian regime.This was simply political realism. Most of the world has seen the US embargo of Cuba as unjust. This action has reflected poorly on the United States. Since 2003 with the invasion of Iraq and war in Afghanistan US respectability has declined. The image of bully has been view of many nations in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. President Obama wants to reverse this negative perception, but will realize it is too late. Depending on who will be the next president all of this could be reversed. An initiative should have been taken earlier to be more effective. What was stopping President Obama was a skeptical public and Republican opposition. While there are criticisms of his visit it should be remembered that President Richard M. Nixon opened relations with China and faced similar criticisms.If this is to be substantial  and genuine there are elements of US foreign policy behavior that must change. The US must stop viewing Latin America as its sphere of influence and instead view it as a separate continent of sovereign nation-states. If this does not happen, President Obama's efforts will be fruitless.

      Cuba had to change course to end the long standing embargo. There are no guarantees the US will honor this promise. Since 1962 the island nation has suffered economic troubles as the world's most powerful nation attempted to break it.Cuba had ti adjust and even allowed some levels of private ownership in the 1990s. The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 dramatically altered the global political landscape. Cuba had lost a partner that provided aid and was now struggling with its own difficulties. The standard of living was gradually declining due to economic isolation by Washington. Hardship could be a catalyst for uprisings.Raul Castro has realized that the youth of the country are becoming restless. They want to contribute to the country in new and bold ways. This change in policy is an attempt to save the legacy of the revolution and preserve its future. If a revolution becomes stagnant it will die. The Cuban Revolution has prided itself on the fact it served as a model to left-wing revolutionary movements throughout Latin America.Cuba today has in many respects rested on its laurels and is attempting to captivate the Cuban people again. The fervor and enthusiasm of the 1960s has never been revived. Fidel Castro achieved many feats during the early years. The Agrarian Land Reform Law, the increase in schools, free healthcare, and the rise of the Federation of Cuban women are just a examples of Cuba's domestic accomplishments. Women were to be mobilized and active participants in the revolution and Afro-Cubans were to become full members of society. 

Revolutionaries like Che and Raul himself looked far beyond Cuba. They did not just espouse antiimperilism and anti-colonial politics, but made it a primary objective in their foreign policy. This meant fighting white minority rule in Southern Africa, opposing US interference in Latin America, and showing solidarity with other leaders of the global south. This was a challenge to America's desire to maintain a containment policy for communism. The US was in favor of even maintaining the old colonial status quo in the former colonies of Britain and France, if it could advance its global agenda. The Cuban government sent troops to Angola in support for their war of liberation. Fidel Castro contributed military and financial assistance to the anti-Apartheid struggle. Che died trying to organize revolutionaries in Bolivia. Although these are commendable acts, there were some foreign policy moves that were questionable. Fidel Castro's support for Ethiopia's Mengistu Mariam was a mistake. This Marxist regime caused much suffering in Ethiopia in the 1980s and was based on a Stalinist model. Cuba did play a role in fueling the Ogaden War. This conflict between Ethiopia and Somalia was being exacerbated by both Russia and Cuba simultaneously with the United States. The US favored Said Barre of Somalia to counter Cuba and Russia. Seeing as the United States could not directly invade Cuba it sought to undermine its foreign policy specifically in Africa. This mean stopping wars of liberation and supporting Apartheid South Africa. The United States also supported Jonas Savimbi  of UNITA while Cuba and Russia supported the MPLA government. The US used that argument Cuba was instigating conflict and the embargo was designed to stop them. When the Cold War ended, the continued use of the embargo demonstrated that the US still had the desire to harm Cuba and its people. They were able to hold out long enough for a US president who was a realist came to power. Cuba had realized that America in a weakened state in terms of military interventions and economic turmoil would be more negotiable. 

       If political matters between the US and Cuba cannot reach a consensus, economic interests could make that possible. Cuba realizes that the island has a natural beauty that visitors do enjoy. Tourism would be rapidly expanded if both countries lifted travel restrictions. The United States and Cuba could exchange goods. There was a time that the United States invested close to a billion dollars in  per capita terms. This was in 1958 and the US had virtually dominated the Cuban economy . The United States had companies that owned 50% of the railways and 90% of the utilities of Cuba.The United States also had control of sugar mills. This unequal control and domination acted as a catalyst for the revolution. If the US is to do business with Cuba it has to be on equal basis.There cannot be a return to one country being a subordinate and the other being master. Foreign investment and the gradual acceptance of private businesses in the 1990s allowed Cuba to avoid the fate of many Communist states.Tourism did grow and it could develop further. Cuba will refuse to let the market decide on basic necessities such as housing, healthcare, and education. The United States would most likely object to these policies if long term economic relations were to be fostered. The reason tourism and foreign investment increased in Cuba was that other nations found it easier to operate without competition from US companies.This could cause another point of schism in terms of economic cooperation.While opening to the US, Cuba could possibly cut itself off from other nations in terms of economic engagement.  

Cuba must avoid becoming dependent economically on the US or any other nation. President Obama must realize the US should not look at other countries as lower.If Cuba were to take the path that China has, there could be dire social circumstances. The opening of the Cuban economy did result in the increase in prostitution and there was a growing inequality in income. People employed in tourism were getting tips in US dollars, which created a level of class conflict. Government employees were finding that they were making less. Around 2004 the government banned 40 categories of self-employment. The following year saw 2,000 business licenses in the private sector revoked. These actions caused much anger and controversy in Cuba. Fidel Castro could no longer govern due to illness and Raul was left to solve these new problems.Cuba had a strong economic incentive to reopen its embassy and welcoming a US president. 

      There has to be a level of realism with this new phase of US-Cuba relations. This is not a friendly exchange, but a thaw in tensions. A number of political and ideological disagreements still remain. The United States disagrees with Cuba's one party structure and level of censorship. It claims that it holds a number of political prisoners. While these criticisms are legitimate, the United States is hardly a paragon of human rights. The US still maintains Guantanamo Bay military base, imprisoning people without any charges. These detainees are victims of America's War on Terror and are from numerous countries. Amnesty International has even condemned the US prison on Cuba. Besides those prisoners the US makes imprisonment a big business. The US has a larger prison population than both Cuba and China. This habit of US presidents lecturing other governments about human rights almost becomes contradictory. The US has over course of the 20th and 21st century invaded a multitude of countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. The Guantanamo Bay naval base is the representation of US imperial domination and violence in the region.The actions of the past make advancing common goals more difficult.The US has engaged in atrocious injustices against the island for an entire century. Cuba was dominated by the US after the Spanish American War. From 1898 to 1959 Cuba did not realize true independence. The Spanish their former colonizers were run out by a stronger country who thought it was best it was under American subjugation. The US mills between 1890 and 1895 had already been producing sugar. The conflict with Spain gave them an excuse to control most of the Cuban economy. Cubans did not even have control of their own government. Gerado Machado ruled with an iron fist from 1924 to 1933 taking directions from Washington. The authoritarian president grew more corrupt, which lead to protests by students and workers.The end came with a coup by Fulencio Batista. Batista was a strong ally of Washington and would continue to dominate the political structure of Cuba from 1934 to 1959. Other presidents would come to office, but Batista was the one in charge. President Ramon Grau San Martin attempted a socialist revolution only to be deposed. Batista did this with the encouragement of the United States. 

Cubans had a choice in who ran the country and the US stopped it. Fulencio Batista was able to maneuver better when working behind the scenes rather than ruling directly.He did rule directly from 1940 to 1944 and left the nation for Miami. He had amass millions and it appears it was by criminal or at least questionable means. When he came out of his brief retirement from politics, the Socorras presidency was in a state of collapse. Electoral fraud, corruption, and government incompetence increased to astronomical levels. Batista then decided to launch another coup in 1952, becoming more dictatorial. The rural workers and youth grew tired of oppression. Fidel Castro returned from exile to lead a rebellion that removed Batista . Despite popular myth, Castro did not hate the United States. He made attempts to maintain relations by remaining in the Organization of American States, allowing the US to maintain Guantanamo naval base, and supporting US investment.Castro was a nationalist and it was clear that US domination could not continue if Cuba were to be a sovereign nation-state. When Fidel Castro began his economic reforms that was when the United States became an enemy. The first reform was to cut utilities charges by US companies . The US had cut off aid and Cuba turned to the Soviet Union negotiating a 200 million dollar trade agreement. Cuba also turned to Russia for oil, when US companies such as Texaco, Royal Dutch Shell, and Standard Oil demanded payment rather than extending Cuba's credit. The United States by 1961 ended diplomatic relations. The US had attempted to assassinate Fidel Castro on multiple occasions. Even after the defeat of the US trained exiles in the Bay of Pigs, there were still attempts to overthrow or subvert the Cuban government. The U.S interest section organized seventy-five dissidents in 2003 to create disturbances in Cuba. They were arrested and it did draw criticism of Cuba, even though these individuals were trying to induce regime change. Other  Latin American countries were also targeted for regime change that refused to break off relations. Ecuador's J.M. Velasco Ibarra was deposed in 1961 due to its support of Cuba. Cuban exiles continued to engage in acts of terrorism bombing hotels and tourist sites. These exiles were based in Miami, Florida longing for the days of Batista's rule. The abuse by the United States continues to be ignominious and the root of much anger. Past and current actions are going to hinder possible normalization. 

     The current state of US-Cuba relations at this point are artificial. Nothing substantial will manifest unless there is a change in mindset. The United States must admit what it has done to Cuba was incorrect. Cuba must find a way to keep its revolution going in a rapidly changing world. What has been gained can easily be lost. This visit by President Obama will be more of a side note of his presidency. He only has a few more months left in office and any change in policy now could be reversed by his successor. This was not a great historic triumph of foreign policy. The reason is President Obama did not meet with one of the must important people in Cuba : Fidel Castro. While Raul Castro is president, Castro still holds an enormous amount of respect and input.His illnesses forced him to step down, put that does not mean he gave up the role of elder statesman. There was an odd amount of silence from the former President Fidel Castro, but not for long. 

Fidel Castro wrote a 1,500  word letter in response to President Obama. The letter revealed the long history of colonialism and imperialism Cuba has suffered under. It harshly criticizes US foreign policy from the Cold War era to present. The contents spoke a hard truth that President Obama does not want to face. He did not come to Cuba out of altruistic concerns, but to reestablish lost business ties. Fidel Castro was most critical by President Obama's comment "now is the time to leave the past behind." This was either a poor attempt at an apology or a disingenuous comment. The past molds the future and understanding it is critical to solving international issues. Examining past US actions can allow an incoming president know what not to do when communicating with Cuba. Fidel Castro then condemned the efforts at establishing market reforms with US companies. It has been documented that when Cuba had business relations with the US it was always in a subservient position. The response by Fidel Castro reveals that he still believes in Marxist and anti-colonial politics and that should be the foundation of the Cuban state.When Raul came to power in 2008 Cuba was changing direction. He may believe that market reforms could solve most of Cuba's problems. Raul Castro may be modeling Cuba on a Chinese post-maoist model. Only time will tell if this ever manifests. President Obama's avoidance of Fidel Castro reveals this three day trip was not as spectacular as the administration portrayed it. A US president coming to terms with a revolutionary it attempted to murder would be historic. President Raul Castro has stated that Cuba will not change it policies in regards to socialism or anti-colonial stance in relation to international affairs. At the moment it appears at least some of the hostility has been reduced between the US and Cuba.

Further Reading 

Charlip, Julie. Latin America : An Interpretive History.  New Jersey: Pearson,2007.      

     

   

      

           

   

North Korea, Nuclear Proliferation, and Imperialism in Asia

Relations between North and South Korea have reach a new nadir. North Korea has threatened preemptive strike . The US continues to do drills in coordination with the South Korean military. These recent launches of  missiles by North Korea is not a demonstration of strength, but of fear. Growing US presence in Asia-Pacific has triggered a regional reaction. America's Asia Pivot policy is dividing Asia into two opposing camps. There are nations such as Japan, South Korea, Vietnam, and the Philippines, Australia, New Zealand, and Indonesia  are gradually forming an anti-China alliance . This is under the guidance of the United States. The world's most powerful nation has had a long history of imperialism in Asia. North Korea although not a model or praise worthy  state  has continued to challenge the US. This is complicated further by North Korea developing nuclear weapons. If North Korea develops a formidable arsenal it could have certain repercussions that are unfavorable. It could cause other nations to get involved in a nuclear arms race. It could be used by the United States as a justification for expanding into East Asia further. Currently, the United Nations intends to impose extremely strict sanctions in opposition to North Korea's nuclear testing. This will have the opposite effect causing North Korea to become more recalcitrant.The current  geopolitical situation  can be explained by history, the rise of nuclear weaponry, and US interventions. 

       The present contention can be linked to the Cold War. The US after World War II chose to follow a policy of  containment. This policy involved stopping the spread of Soviet communism. Originally designed for Europe, the US then applied it to Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Korea suffered under the domination of Japan. It was added as a colony in 1910. When the Japanese Empire was defeated in 1945 both the Soviet Union and the United States occupied Korea. Korea seemed like it could not escape from foreign invaders coming to its land. Another problem was that it was now divided in two. Two states emerged : a communist north and a US backed south. This division of Korea was nothing new. From the ancient period of history to the 20th century, there were times Korea was never fully unified. There were periods of unified states or separate kingdoms. When North Korea invaded South Korea it triggered a US response. Harry S. Truman sent troops to retake Korea, but did not describe it as war. He referred  to this as a "police action." Under the cover of a United Nations mission the US engaged in a military action. North Korea would have been defeated if it were not for the intervention of Communist China. The People's Liberation Army was able to push back the US led UN force. The war was waged from 1950 to 1953 and ended with a ceasefire. The United States did not have victory and Korea was still divided. To date this has to be one of the world's longest ceasefires. The US intervention had nothing to do with human rights, but competition with the Soviet Union. Korea became another proxy for conflict in the Cold War. When the US attempted imperial maneuvers in Indochina, Korea haunted them. The reason North Vietnam did not face ground invasion by the US was the fear that China would send the PLA in response. Eventually, the US would open relations with China and be defeated in Vietnam. That symbolized the retreat of US imperialism in  East Asia .North Korea was still a target of the US, even when the Cold War ended.

During the Clinton administration, tensions again rose to dangerous levels. The US was even considering military action in 1994 over North Korea's accelerated nuclear weapons program. This was a point in which North Korea was in political transition. Kim Il-Sung died and his son Kim Jung-Il rose to power. It was a vulnerable time for the isolated country. The only reason president Clinton did not strike the country was because there was a high possibility of US casualties if an invasion were to take place. Instead, President Clinton attempted diplomacy to come to an agreement on  North Korea's nuclear programs. Secretary of State Madeleine Albright  went to North Korea in the year 2000. She was the first high level US official to visit North Korea . These negotiations were not a complete success. However, it was a positive step at starting a dialogue between two nations with hostile feelings toward one another. There are reasons why these talks failed. North Korea was still suspicious of US intentions in Asia. This was not based on conspiracy theories, but a number of events in the 1990s. The US had bombed Iraq in 1998, intervened in Somalia, and bombed Kosovo in 1999. The United States was and continues to be the world's only superpower. The US continued to hold a grudge against the war that ended with a ceasefire. These factors are why Madeleine Albright's visit was not entirely effective at normalizing relations or reducing hostility. While the Clinton administration made no progress, the Bush administration became more belligerent.   

This was the early 9/11 era and President Bush declared North Korea part of an "axis of evil."Neoconservative foreign policy had destroyed previous attempts to negotiate with North Korea.  Kim Jung Il now became more paranoid about the US. After the 2003 Iraq War many leaders around the world became concerned about growing US military action. Nations in Africa, Asia, and Latin America wondered if they were next. As President Bush said " you are either with us, or you are with the terrorists." The desire to act unilaterally on international disputes and attack nations damaged America's image. North Korea reacted by conducting missile launches in 2006, which almost hit targets in Japan. There was some hope of change with President Obama, but that ended with a new policy : the pivot to Asia. It is directed at China, but it will target nations in Asia that do not submit to US foreign policy objectives. US imperialism has been rejuvenated in Asia under a disguise of collective security.   

        There are concerns about nuclear proliferation in Asia. The US is the only country so far to use nuclear weapons in a war. If anything, there should be more concern about the arsenals of the US, UK, France, Russia, China, and Israel. The reason is that other nations in the region will also become involved in an arms race. Nuclear weapons still hold a level of prestige for some countries. Japan, Indonesia, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, and the Philippines would want nuclear weapons if North Korea developed a large arsenal. It gives them a level of respect while projecting an image of power .   If Asia was to go through an arms race, there would be more tension among a nuclear armed South Korea. Even though Korea is one place, the North and the South now have two distinct national identities. There is a level of hatred that has been present for decades and cannot be subsided easily.Mutually assured destruction should prevent countries from acting too extreme. There still is a possibility of nuclear brinkmanship. If both North and South Korea have a nuclear exchange it would mean that the US and China would have to react. This is why China is not supportive of North Korea having nuclear weapons. China now even approves sanctions, even though North Korea is its ally. Wang Yi Chinese  the foreign minister even met with President Vladimir Putin  to discuss how North Korea could be dealt with. Nuclear weapons capability means more power and independence. China when it was developing nuclear weapons worried Russia. The Sino-Soviet Split encouraged Mao's China to develop nuclear weapons. Russia and China had become hostile toward one another. There were fears of a conflict with Russia and simultaneously the US. Around 1964 China had a successful nuclear detonation and test.  This symbolic meant China was a country not to be tampered with. North Korea seeks that guarantee of security. China was willing to provide this up to a certain extent . Korea's political system has not reformed like China's and the two countries are growing further apart .Nuclear proliferation complicates this, because North Korea could pursue more independent foreign policy. Nuclear weapons are deterrence against invasion or violation of sovereignty. North Korea views it as a means of survival. 

          There have been tensions over the years, but this could escalate into war between North and South Korea. The rhetoric that has been exchanged has been incendiary. President Park Guen-Hye warned North Korea of "regime collapse." She was imply that the rulers would be deposed very soon if their behavior does not change. Kim Jong Un then responded by saying "he is preparing North Korea for preemptive war."While this is occurring the United States has been conducting drills with the South Korean military. Uncivil exchanges have happened between the two leaders previously. These latest comments seem more serious and provocative.  

The only factor that preventing a larger coalition is Japan. South Korea still has numerous issues with Japan. One is the issue of financial compensation for Korean comfort women during World War II. Japan refuses to acknowledge its wartime wrong doing to Asia. Shinzo Abe heads a conservative government, which does not see anti-Korean racism as a problem. The United States hopes to build a much stronger anti-North Korea alliance with Japan and South Korea included. This alliance would be fragile considering Japan does not regard Koreans highly. There could be a possibility that Japan takes matters into their own hands. Prime Minister Shinzo Abe has sought to dismantle Japan's pacifist constitution. His argument is that it would allow Japan to help in counter-terrorism operations around the world. The real motive is to make Japan the dominant power in Asia once more. This sudden turn to militarization is directed more so at China, but will effect the Korean peninsula at some point. The tension on the Korean peninsula could result in a wider East Asian war. The approach by the United States will exacerbate the situation. China's six party talks in the mid-2000s was an attempt at a balanced method at solving political disputes between North and South Korea. Unfortunately, these happened at the wrong time when the US was not interested in their success. Regime change had become official US policy promoted by both Republican and Democratic Parties .  President George W. Bush viewed the world in simplistic terms labeling countries as either "good" or "evil." North Korea fell into the category of "dangerous country." So, the Bush administration refused to use diplomacy for certain international disputes. There was little improvement with President Obama who expanded US presence in the Asia-Pacific region. The death of Kim Jong Il opened the possibility for change in the system. Kim Jong Un was a young leader and may have a different perspective of the world than his father did. This quickly unraveled with the execution of  Jang Sung -taek, one of the most powerful officials in North Korea next to the Supreme Leader. This was a purge occurring in 2013 and demonstrated that oppressive policies would remain in place. The South Korean President Park Geun Hye  is the daughter of one of South Korea's most authoritarian presidents. Her father ruled with an iron fist from 1961 to 1979. Her government has been accused of corruption and bribery. Many of her critics accuse her of being too harsh and bellicose with North Korea. Mediation or reconciliation may not be reachable considering these two leaders were shaped by the past and their parents. It almost appears as if two rival dynasties are struggling for control.There may be a desire to see one collapse so that Korea can be fully reunified. The end of cooperation in the Kaesong industrial zone marks a negative turn in relations.This business venture could have led to a lasting settlement and economic prosperity for both North and South Korea. It may be only a matter of time before war breaks out. 

        If tensions and a possible war are to be avoided, there a certain conditions that have to be met. The first is that it must be an initiative bilaterally between North and South Korea to improve relations. The involvement of other countries will only complicate matters and be used as a platform for other nations to advance their agenda in Asia. While China's efforts with the six party talks was commendable, it was clear that they still believe that North Korea is a sphere of influence. At the moment North Korea is asserting itself more much to China's discontent. The United States sees South Korea as one giant military base and a tool for their foreign policy. The Korean peninsula is not a colony. If the present circumstances continue both North and South Korea could gradually see their national sovereignty diminish.Another condition that has to be realized is that sanctions are counterproductive. The sanctions normally harm the citizens of the nation being punished. The United Nations has vowed to impose the most strict sanctions to date on North Korea. This will not make North Korea more compliant, but more obdurate in behavior. It also gives North Korea more source material for propaganda campaigns. Sanctions will just create a population more vexed at the United States and the United Nations.The most important condition is that nations of the world must come to the realization that other nations will acquire nuclear weapons. North Korea will be one of many countries that will be armed with such weapons. Technology can bring benefits to society as well as unanticipated negative ones. The only way to prevent nuclear war is through skillful diplomacy. This was a lesson that was learned through the Cuban missile crisis. The US and the Soviet Union came to an agreement, when realizing how close they came to destruction. The Soviets removed their launch systems from Cuba and the US removed nuclear sites from Turkey. North Korea can be managed in a similar manner. This will have to be done under the guidance of other Asian nations and not the United States. Threats of regime change, invasion, and war must stop if progress is to be made. The fate of Korea is in the hands of two leaders, who are now in a state of bitter rivalry. If  this is exacerbated the future of Korea will be a dismal one.            

   

W.E.B Dubois on Ignorance

Bacteria

Bacteria are diminutive microscopic organisms which can be found in numerous environments. They are simple life forms. Bacteria is part of the Monera Kingdom. These organisms have certain characteristics. They have a single celled structure, are microscopic in size, and do not possess a nucleus. The DNA of Monera remains loose in the cell, therefore making it prokaryotic. Monera are not plants nor animals, but are classified as either being bacteria or blue-green algae. There are known to be close to 4,000 different species of Monera. It is possible that these were the first organisms to emerge on Earth. Not all bacteria is harmful. The skin can carry up to a total 600 million bacteria. Every single one does not induce disease, but it is possible more lethal microorganisms can enter the body. Diphtheroids are present in moist areas of the body like the arm pits and groin. Saliva can carry streptococci, spirochetes, fusobacteria, and bacilli. The large bowel has escherichia coli and clostridia. Bacteria has proven to be a survivor and a successful species in the Earth's ecosystem.
      The size of bacteria is minimal. This however allows it to adapt to other environments more efficiently. Thirty trillion bacteria of standard size can only weigh as much as 28 grams, which is equivalent to one ounce. Seeing as these organisms are so small, microns are used to measure the size of bacteria. The dimensions of bacteria can range from a width of 0.1 to 4.0 microns. The length of bacteria can extend from 0.2 to 50 microns. Being a small organism means that bacteria can have a wide range of habitats. Larger organisms would have difficulty in particular areas. Bacteria does not have this problem and is able to survive the most harsh conditions. Bacteria has been located in upper reaches of the atmosphere, the surface of the ocean, in frozen soil, and on rocks in hot springs. Other types of bacteria contain a endospore that also helps it in extreme conditions. The resting stage, which the endospore protects bacteria and is highly resistant. This does not mean the endospore makes bacteria immortal. Endospores can be eliminated with by boiling them in steam under intense pressure. This is a situation in which bigger is not always better. Bacteria has no ability for thought or intelligence, but has durability and numbers on its side in the fight for survival.
      Bacteria has a specific classification. Bacteria cannot be categorized as a plant or animal, due to certain characteristics. Bacteria does have rigid cell walls similar to plants, but uses organic sustenance sources for energy. There are bacteria that get their needed energy from photosynthesis, but this is rare. Bacteria can best be identified by their structural shape. Bacilli are known to have flagella. Those structures allow certain bacteria to be mobile, by propelling it by a whip like mechanism. Bacilli are known to be rod like in shape. Bacilli can have flagella throughout the whole body or just one. Bacilli that originate from spores are resistant to heat, toxic chemicals, and even water. Germinating spores can spread to form newly born bacilli. Cocci are spherical and cluster together.

Cocci can also develop in long chain like structures. An example of this would be the streptococci bacteria. The cocci bacteria can also form almost a structure that looks similar to grapes. Straphylococci can be described in this manner. There is also spirilla , which can be accordion shaped  . This type of bacteria would fall under pathogenic spirochetes. Other types of spirilla have a helix structure  in appearance. They are not as flexible  compared to spirochetes, so they are more dependent on flagella. Their coiled structure can either be regular or irregular in form. There are also other forms that do not fit in these three classifications. Mycoplasms are unique due to the fact they have no form. They are the smallest bacteria known and are referred to as pleuropneumonialike. These organisms have the ability to cause pneumonia. Even though bacteria differs, there are still basic structures that can be found in a majority of bacteria. Bacteria contains cytoplasm, a semipermeable membrane, and ribosomes. The cell wall is very durable. The mesosome is the gateway of the membrane into the cytoplasm. RNA is responsible for forming proteins. DNA within the cell tends to circular. 

The only way the structure of bacteria was discovered was by gram staining. This technique was pioneered by bacteriologist Hans Christian Gram in 1884. Using dye or a stain mixed with other chemicals allows for bacteria to be visible in certain colors. Violet colored bacteria are known as gram-positive, while red colored bacteria are called gram-negative. This technique allows physicians to determine which antibiotic to use when combating infection. Gram-positive bacteria are vulnerable to penicillin, while gram-negative bacteria are destroyed by streptomycin. Understanding the anatomy and structure of bacteria gives a biologist a better view of the microscopic world.

       Just like any other organism, bacteria and the Monera kingdom have physiological functions. Cyanobacteria, which is blue-green algae falls under the same classification as bacteria. Bacteria and blue-green algae do not contain organelles and are prokaryotic. This means bacteria must receive energy by a variety of methods. Some bacteria require oxygen, which are known as aerobes. There are also bacteria that can not be in oxygen known as obligate anaerobes. There are bacteria that are photosynthesis dependent and are anaaerobic. Sulfur bacteria are not dependent on oxygen , due to the difference in environment. Anaerobes get most of there biological needs through a process of fermentation. This process describes the break down of organic molecules by means of enzymes. Chemosynthetic  bacteria require light and nitrogen mixed with sulfur compounds  to produce energy. Besides the production of food, bacteria also have to reproduce. The majority reproduce asexually by a method of binary fission. This requires one cell to physically divide into two separate ones. It is possible that some bacteria can divide every twenty minutes, depending on the environment. At this rate a total of 500,000 cells could be produced in about six hours. This quick reproduction explains why disease, decay, the rotting of  perishable food, and other chemical processes happen at such a fast rate. Bacteria do not only have binary fusion as a method of reproduction, but a process known as conjugation. This reproduction is sexual rather than asexual and involves two bacteria merging. When they join genes are exchanged. The chromosomes are recombined. Recombination causes a fragment of a chromosome to be transmitted from one bacterium to be added to another. This process of recombination means that bacteria can have a wide range of hereditary attributes. This could be an explanation why certain bacteria are becoming antibiotic resistant. However, this does not mean bacteria is indestructible. High temperature has the ability to eliminate most bacteria species.  Non-spore forming bacteria can be killed by disinfectants or boiling water. One of the most important structures to bacteria is plasmids. These structures are small pieces of DNA and carry various genes with no specific purpose. This type of DNA should not be confused with chromosomal DNA. Plasmids may aid in traits that protect bacteria from certain antibiotics. These structures have use in genetic engineering, because they can be manipulated to form recombinant DNA. Another interesting process that bacteria physiologically experience is transduction. Bacteria can exchange chromosomal information when it is infected externally. A virus can infect a bacterium creating a bacteriophage through transduction. The bacterial strain becomes infected, but it is not killed by it. This is an indication of lysogeny, which means a virus cannot be easily detected. 

These are the general physiological attributes of bacteria. Even though they are simple organisms, it is possible they are evolving. This should not be a surprise, because other life forms have done it over millions of years. 

     When bacteria is mentioned there is an association with disease. All bacteria is not harmful, but there are a portion that are linked to lethal illness. The germ theory of disease was developed as early as 1546 by Girolamo Fracastoro. The Italian physician described organisms who carried disease as seminaria. During his time the technology was limited. It was not until the invention of the microscope that humankind could view bacteria. Antoni Van Leeuwenhoek had developed single lens microscopes in 1676. This technological advancement aided in the further study of bacteria and its role in disease. Without the microscope, bacteriology would not exist. Actual classification of bacteria did not occur until the 19th century. Christian Gottifried developed the genus classification of bacterium in 1829. The word is derived from Greek known as bacterion, which means rod like. Bacteria was once placed in a classification with plants. This was incorrect and by the 1960s they were placed as Monerans. Other scientists pioneered the nature of bacteria and techniques for preventing infection. Ignaz Phillip Semmelweiss explored the use disinfectants while working in maternity wards in the 1840s. The Hungarian obstetrician prevented many infections and controlled the rise of puerperal sepsis. The major breakthrough was with Robert Koch in 1876. Koch's examination of anthrax was direct evidence of bacteria's role in disease. Louis Plasteur confirmed this and expounded further on the germ theory of disease. Koch continued to develop techniques to identify which bacteria caused certain infections. The Koch postulates function on these set of rules : bacteria are present in the area of infected tissue,  bacteria  must be isolated or separated  ( pure culture or artificial medium),  and  other experiments must behave the same way for other animals. That means the inoculation should produce the same results if a particular bacteria is the root cause of infection. Joseph Lester advanced biomedical science from the Koch postulates, by using carbolic acid to fight infections. This resulted in the rise of modern antiseptics. Pasteur continued to develop vaccines, which lead to the rise of immunology. Having a better understanding of bacteria, health, and hygiene resulted in increased life expectancy. Bacteria can still adjust even with various medical techniques. It can be transmitted through the air, water, food, animals, contact with other people, or other objects. There are bacteria that serve important functions for the human body. Natural flora is present in the body. The large intestine requires E. coli to monitor the body's water balance and provide essential vitamins.

       The study of bacteria has progressed immensely over the past two centuries. The major focus was mostly on pathogenic bacteria until the 1950s. The study of bacteria allowed for the exploration into other areas related to cells. This includes areas of metabolism, protein synthesis, and molecular genetics. Bacteria's simple structure allows for manipulation, which can reveal much about microbial cells. Bacteriology has also enabled other interdisciplinary studies such as molecular biology and biochemical genetics. Humankind has access to a microscopic world that was unknown. Besides having an impact on the scientific world, bacteria has industrial use. They are essential in the production cheese, yogurt, buttermilk, vinegar, and sauerkraut. Bacteria is also needed in the production of antibiotics streptomycin. Bacteria can also be utilized in the tanning of leather (including hides) and the curing of tobacco. Bacteria, even though it is associated with disease is critical to the life cycle on Earth. Plants and animals require these microorganisms. Bacteria decomposes matter, which happens to organisms when their life cycles end. Nitrogen fixing bacteria form nitrate which green plants use for development. It enables the nitrogen cycle in Earth's ecosystem. Bacteria also has the ability to create fertilizer. The break down of compost heaps made of  plant material and soil create a fertilizer through bacteria's ability to decompose organic matter. Bacteria may be small, but is serves an enormous function in Earth's environment. 

Further Reading 

Barnes-Svarney, Patricia. Science Desk Reference . New York: Stonesong Press Inc, 1995. 

"Bacteria." Encyclopedia of Knowledge. Vol. 2. Danbury, CT: Grolier, 1991. 329-32.

       

Mugabe's Ex-deputy Launches Rival Zimbabwe Party

Joyce Mujru former vice president has now formed her rival political party. She was one of  president Mugabe's most staunch supporters, but political conflict emerged. Zanu-PF has been going through a form of political factionalism, that could result in a dispute that parallels the Dissident's War in the 1980's. Her removal may not be the desire of Mugabe himself, but his wife Grace. Grace Mugabe could have political ambitions of her own hoping to be the designated successor to the party leadership and presidency. Her sudden removal and the accusations of attempting to assassinate president Mugabe are questionable. Joyce Mujru obviously is not aligned with the West like Morgan Tsvangairai and the MDC. This could have a destabilizing effect, if this new party seeks external contributions. It raises other questions of  the dangers of a  post-Mugabe Zimbabwe descending into civil war.